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Grković I, Drakulić D, Martinović J, Mitrović N. Role of Ectonucleotidases in Synapse Formation During Brain Development: Physiological and Pathological Implications. Curr Neuropharmacol 2019; 17:84-98. [PMID: 28521702 PMCID: PMC6341498 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x15666170518151541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 05/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background
Extracellular adenine nucleotides and nucleosides, such as ATP and adenosine, are among the most recently identified and least investigated diffusible signaling factors that contribute to the structural and functional remodeling of the brain, both during embryonic and postnatal development. Their levels in the extracellular milieu are tightly controlled by various ectonucleotidases: ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterases (E-NPP), alkaline phosphatases (AP), ecto-nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolases (E-NTPDases) and ecto-5'-nucleotidase (eN). Methods
Studies related to the expression patterns of ectonucleotidases and their known features during brain development are reviewed, highlighting involvement of these enzymes in synapse formation and maturation in physiological as well as in pathological states. Results
During brain development and in adulthood all ectonucleotidases have diverse expression pattern, cell specific localization and function. NPPs are expressed at early embryonic days, but the expression of NPP3 is reduced and restricted to ependymal area in adult brain. NTPDase2 is dominant ectonucleotidase existing in the progenitor cells as well as main astrocytic NTPDase in the adult brain, while NTPDase3 is fully expressed after third postnatal week, almost exclusively on varicose fibers. Specific brain AP is functionally associated with synapse formation and this enzyme is sufficient for adenosine production during neurite growth and peak of synaptogenesis. eN is transiently associated with synapses during synaptogenesis, however in adult brain it is more glial than neuronal enzyme. Conclusion
Control of extracellular adenine nucleotide levels by ectonucleotidases are important for understanding the role of purinergic signaling in developing tissues and potential targets in developmental disorders such as autism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Grković
- Department of Molecular Biology and Endocrinology, VINCA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovica Alasa 12-14, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dunja Drakulić
- Department of Molecular Biology and Endocrinology, VINCA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovica Alasa 12-14, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Martinović
- Department of Molecular Biology and Endocrinology, VINCA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovica Alasa 12-14, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nataša Mitrović
- Department of Molecular Biology and Endocrinology, VINCA Institute of Nuclear Sciences, University of Belgrade, Mike Petrovica Alasa 12-14, 11001 Belgrade, Serbia
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Burnstock G, Dale N. Purinergic signalling during development and ageing. Purinergic Signal 2015; 11:277-305. [PMID: 25989750 PMCID: PMC4529855 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-015-9452-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular purines and pyrimidines play major roles during embryogenesis, organogenesis, postnatal development and ageing in vertebrates, including humans. Pluripotent stem cells can differentiate into three primary germ layers of the embryo but may also be involved in plasticity and repair of the adult brain. These cells express the molecular components necessary for purinergic signalling, and their developmental fates can be manipulated via this signalling pathway. Functional P1, P2Y and P2X receptor subtypes and ectonucleotidases are involved in the development of different organ systems, including heart, blood vessels, skeletal muscle, urinary bladder, central and peripheral neurons, retina, inner ear, gut, lung and vas deferens. The importance of purinergic signalling in the ageing process is suggested by changes in expression of A1 and A2 receptors in old rat brains and reduction of P2X receptor expression in ageing mouse brain. By contrast, in the periphery, increases in expression of P2X3 and P2X4 receptors are seen in bladder and pancreas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey Burnstock
- Autonomic Neuroscience Centre, University College Medical School, Rowland Hill Street, London, NW3 2PF, UK,
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Cruz FF, Leite CE, Pereira TCB, Bogo MR, Bonan CD, Battastini AMO, Campos MM, Morrone FB. Assessment of mercury chloride-induced toxicity and the relevance of P2X7 receptor activation in zebrafish larvae. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2013; 158:159-64. [PMID: 23872137 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2013.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Zebrafish (Danio rerio) has been adopted as a model for behavioral, immunological and toxicological studies. Mercury is a toxic heavy metal released into the environment. There is evidence indicating that heavy metals can modulate ionotropic receptors, including the purinergic receptor P2X7. Therefore, this study evaluated the in vivo effects of acute exposure to mercury chloride (HgCl2) in zebrafish larvae and to investigate the involvement of P2X7R in mercury-related toxicity. Larvae survival was evaluated for 24 h after exposure to HgCl2, ATP or A740003. The combination of ATP (1 mM) and HgCl2 (20 μg/L) decreased survival when compared to ATP 1 mM. The antagonist A740003 (300 and 500 nM) increased the survival time, and reversed the mortality caused by ATP and HgCl2 in association. Quantitative real time PCR showed a decrease of P2X7R expression in the larvae treated with HgCl2 (20 μg/L). Evaluating the oxidative stress our results showed decreased CAT (catalase) activity and increased MDA (malondialdehyde) levels. Of note, the combination of ATP with HgCl2 showed an additive effect. This study provides novel evidence on the possible mechanisms underlying the toxicity induced by mercury, indicating that it is able to modulate P2X7R in zebrafish larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Fernandes Cruz
- Instituto de Toxicologia e Farmacologia, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga, 6681, 90619-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil; Faculdade de Farmácia, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga, 6681, 90619-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Senger MR, Rico EP, de Bem Arizi M, Frazzon APG, Dias RD, Bogo MR, Bonan CD. Exposure to Hg2+ and Pb2+ changes NTPDase and ecto-5'-nucleotidase activities in central nervous system of zebrafish (Danio rerio). Toxicology 2006; 226:229-37. [PMID: 16930798 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2006] [Revised: 05/27/2006] [Accepted: 07/14/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Neurotransmission can be affected by exposure to heavy metals, such as mercury and lead. ATP is a signaling molecule that can be metabolized by a group of enzymes called ecto-nucleotidases. Here we investigated the effects of mercury chloride (HgCl(2)) and lead acetate (Pb(CH(3)COO)(2)) on NTPDase (nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase) and ecto-5'-nucleotidase activities in zebrafish brain membranes. In vitro exposure to HgCl(2) decreased ATP and ADP hydrolysis in an uncompetitive mechanism and AMP hydrolysis in a non-competitive manner. Pb(CH(3)COO)(2) inhibited ATP hydrolysis in an uncompetitive manner, but not ADP and AMP hydrolysis. In vivo exposure of zebrafish to HgCl(2) or Pb(CH(3)COO)(2) (20mug/L, during 24, 96h and 30 days) caused differential effects on nucleotide hydrolysis. HgCl(2), during 96h, inhibited the hydrolysis of ATP, ADP and AMP. After 30 days of exposure to HgCl(2), ATP hydrolysis returned to the control levels, ADP hydrolysis was strongly increased and AMP hydrolysis remained inhibited. Exposure to Pb(CH(3)COO)(2) during 96h caused a significant decrease only on ATP hydrolysis. After 30 days, Pb(CH(3)COO)(2) promoted the inhibition of ATP, ADP and AMP hydrolysis. Semi-quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed no changes in the expression of NTPDase1 and 5'-nucleotidase, following 30 days of exposure to both metals. This study demonstrated that Hg(2+) and Pb(2+) affect the ecto-nucleotidase activities, an important enzymatic pathway for the control of purinergic signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Roberto Senger
- Laboratório de Neuroquímica e Psicofarmacologia, Faculdade de Biociências, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga 6681, 90619-900 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Toimela T, Mäenpää H, Mannerström M, Tähti H. Development of an in vitro blood–brain barrier model—cytotoxicity of mercury and aluminum. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2004; 195:73-82. [PMID: 14962507 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2003.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2003] [Accepted: 11/06/2003] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
In this study, in vitro blood-brain barrier (BBB) models composed of two different cell types were compared. The aim of our study was to find an alternative human cell line that could be used in BBB models. Inorganic and organic mercury and aluminum were studied as model chemicals in the testing of the system. BBB models were composed of endothelial RBE4 cell line or retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cell line ARPE-19 and neuronal SH-SY5Y cells as target cells. Glial U-373 MG cells were included in part of the tests to induce the formation of a tighter barrier. Millicell CM filter inserts were coated with rat-tail collagen, and RBE4 or ARPE-19 cells were placed on the filters at the density of 3.5-4 x 10(5) cells/filter. During culture, the state of confluency was microscopically observed and confirmed by the measurement of electrical resistance caused by the developing cell layer. The target cells, SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells, were plated on the bottom of cell culture wells at the density of 100000 cells/cm(2). In part of the studies, glial U-373 MG cells were placed on the under side of the membrane filter. When confluent filters with ARPE-19 or RBE4 cells were placed on top of the SH-SY5Y cells, different concentrations of mercuric chloride, methyl mercury chloride, and aluminum chloride were added into the filter cups along with a fluorescent tracer. Exposure time was 24 h, after which the cytotoxicity in the SH-SY5Y cell layer, as well as in the ARPE-19 or RBE4 cell layer, was evaluated by the luminescent measurement of total ATP. The leakage of the fluorescent tracer was also monitored. The results showed that both barrier cell types were induced by glial cells. Inorganic and organic mercury caused a leakage of the dye and cytotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cells. Especially, methyl mercury chloride could exert an effect on target cells before any profound cytotoxicity in barrier cells could be seen. Aluminum did not cause any leakage in the barrier cell layer, and even the highest concentration (1 mM) of aluminum did not cause any cytotoxicity in the SH-SY5Y cells. In conclusion, BBB models composed of RBE4 and ARPE-19 cells were able to distinguish between different toxicities, and ARPE-19 cells are thus promising candidates for studies of drug penetration through the blood-brain barrier.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarja Toimela
- University of Tampere, Medical School, 33014 University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland.
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Moretto MB, Lermen CL, Morsch VM, Bohrer D, Ineu RP, da Silva AC, Balz D, Schetinger MRC. Effect of subchronic treatment with mercury chloride on NTPDase, 5'-nucleotidase and acetylcholinesterase from cerebral cortex of rats. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2004; 17:255-60. [PMID: 15139388 DOI: 10.1016/s0946-672x(04)80027-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present investigation was to evaluate the effect of a subchronic treatment (30 days/30 doses) with subcutaneous injections (0.1 mg/kg) of HgCl2 on NTPDase (E.C. 3.6.1.5), 5'-nucleotidase (E.C 3.1.3.5) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE, E.C. 3.1.1.7) activities in brain from adult rats. NTPDase and 5'-nucleotidase were measured in cortical synaptosomal fraction and AChE was measured in the homogenate of cerebral cortex and hippocampus. After the subchronic treatment (30 days), NTPDase activity was enhanced approximately 35% (p < 0.05) with ATP and ADP as substrates and no difference was observed in 5'-nucleotidase activity (AMP hydrolysis). In addition, AChE activity was enhanced in the cerebral cortex (22%, p < 0.05) and hippocampus (26%, p < 0.05) after the subchronic treatment. Mercury deposited in brain was measured by cold vapor (atomic absorption spectrometry) and no difference between the control and the subchronically treated group was observed. Here we showed for the first time that exposure to low levels of Hg2+, which resembles occupational exposure to low levels of mercury, caused a marked increase in NTPDase and AChE activities. The relationship of these alterations with the neurotoxicity of inorganic mercury deserves further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Beatriz Moretto
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, Brazil
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Rossoni LV, Amaral SM, Vassallo PF, França A, Oliveira EM, Varner KJ, Mill JG, Vassallo DV. Effects of mercury on the arterial blood pressure of anesthetized rats. Braz J Med Biol Res 1999; 32:989-97. [PMID: 10454761 DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x1999000800009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The available data suggests that hypotension caused by Hg2+ administration may be produced by a reduction of cardiac contractility or by cholinergic mechanisms. The hemodynamic effects of an intravenous injection of HgCl2 (5 mg/kg) were studied in anesthetized rats (N = 12) by monitoring left and right ventricular (LV and RV) systolic and diastolic pressures for 120 min. After HgCl2 administration the LV systolic pressure decreased only after 40 min (99 +/- 3.3 to 85 +/- 8.8 mmHg at 80 min). However, RV systolic pressure increased, initially slowly but faster after 30 min (25 +/- 1.8 to 42 +/- 1.6 mmHg at 80 min). Both right and left diastolic pressures increased after HgCl2 treatment, suggesting the development of diastolic ventricular dysfunction. Since HgCl2 could be increasing pulmonary vascular resistance, isolated lungs (N = 10) were perfused for 80 min with Krebs solution (continuous flow of 10 ml/min) containing or not 5 microM HgCl2. A continuous increase in pulmonary vascular resistance was observed, suggesting the direct effect of Hg2+ on the pulmonary vessels (12 +/- 0.4 to 29 +/- 3.2 mmHg at 30 min). To examine the interactions of Hg2+ and changes in cholinergic activity we analyzed the effects of acetylcholine (Ach) on mean arterial blood pressure (ABP) in anesthetized rats (N = 9) before and after Hg2+ treatment (5 mg/kg). Using the same amount and route used to study the hemodynamic effects we also examined the effects of Hg2+ administration on heart and plasma cholinesterase activity (N = 10). The in vivo hypotensive response to Ach (0.035 to 10.5 microg) was reduced after Hg2+ treatment. Cholinesterase activity (microM h-1 mg protein-1) increased in heart and plasma (32 and 65%, respectively) after Hg2+ treatment. In conclusion, the reduction in ABP produced by Hg2+ is not dependent on a putative increase in cholinergic activity. HgCl2 mainly affects cardiac function. The increased pulmonary vascular resistance and cardiac failure due to diastolic dysfunction of both ventricles are factors that might contribute to the reduction of cardiac output and the fall in arterial pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- L V Rossoni
- Departamento de Ciências Fisiológicas, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo, Vitória, ES, Brasil
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Bonan CD, Battastini AM, Schetinger MR, Moreira CM, Frassetto SS, Dias RD, Sarkis JJ. Effects of 9-amino-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroacridine (THA) on ATP diphosphohydrolase (EC 3.6.1.5) and 5'-nucleotidase (EC 3.1.3.5) from rat brain synaptosomes. GENERAL PHARMACOLOGY 1997; 28:761-6. [PMID: 9184816 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-3623(96)00276-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
1. 9-Amino-1,2,3,4-tetrahydroacridine (THA), an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, significantly inhibited in vitro the ATP diphosphohydrolase activity of synaptosomes from the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of adult rats. 2. THA did not inhibit in vitro the 5'-nucleotidase activity of synaptosomes from cerebral cortex and hippocampus of rats. 3. THA exerted an uncompetitive inhibition on ATP diphosphohydrolase activity. This mechanism of inhibition was the same in the 2 different synaptosomal fractions (cerebral cortex and hippocampus) studied. 4. THA, proposed as a drug for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, can alter in vitro ATP degradation in synaptosomes from the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- C D Bonan
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, Federal University of Rio Grande Do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Menezes de Oliveira E, Oliveira Battastini AM, Meirelles MN, Menezes Moreira C, Dutra Dias R, Freitas Sarkis JJ. Characterization and localization of an ATP diphosphohydrolase activity (EC 3.6.1.5) in sarcolemmal membrane from rat heart. Mol Cell Biochem 1997; 170:115-23. [PMID: 9144325 DOI: 10.1023/a:1006848701467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In the present report we describe an ATP diphosphohydrolase (apyrase EC 3.6.1.5) in rat cardiac sarcolemma. It is Ca2+ dependent and is insensitive to ouabain, orthovanadate, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM), lanthanum, and oligomycin that are classical ATPase inhibitors. Sodium azide that is a mitochondrial inhibitor at low concentrations, did not affect the enzyme activity at 5.0 mM or below. In contrast, at high concentrations (> 10 mM) sodium azide inhibited the enzyme. Levamisole, a specific inhibitor of alkaline phosphatase and P1, P5-di(adenosine 5'-)pentaphosphate (Ap5A), a specific inhibitor of adenylate kinase did not inhibit the enzyme. Mercury chloride showed a parallel inhibition of the hydrolysis of both substrates of apyrase. Similar inhibition profiles are powerful evidence for a common catalytic site for the hydrolysis of both substrates. The enzyme has an optimum pH range of 7.5-8.0 and catalyzes the hydrolysis of triphospho- and diphosphonucleosides other than ATP or ADP. The apparent Km (Michaelis constant) and Vmax (maximal velocity) are 62.1 +/- 5.2 microM and 1255.7 +/- 178 micromol inorganic phosphate liberated/min/mg with ATP and 59.4 +/- 4.3 microM and 269.2 +/- 39 micromol inorganic phosphate liberated/min/mg with ADP. Enzyme markers indicated that this apyrase is associated with the plasma membrane. A deposition of lead phosphate granules on the outer surface of the sarcolemmal vesicles was observed by electron microscopy in the presence of either ATP or ADP as substrate. It is suggested that the ATP diphosphohydrolase could regulate the concentration of extracellular adenosine, and thus is important in the control of vascular tone and coronary flow.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Menezes de Oliveira
- University Hospital of Santa Maria, Center of Health Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
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