In vivo antimalarial activity of ginseng extracts

Characteristics of ginsenoside Rd-induced effects on rat intestinal contractility with irritable bowel syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a very common refractory disease. Its exact pathophysiological mechanism is still unclear. Despite the availability of plentiful drugs to control IBS, most patients do not respond well. Ginsenoside Rd is one of the major active components of Panax ginseng, which has been verified to produce various pharmacological actions. However, the role of ginsenoside Rd in modulating smooth muscle contractility is still undefined. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of ginsenoside Rd on intestinal contractility and related mechanisms in IBS.

Neurotransmitters and molecular chaperones interactions in cerebral malaria: Is there a missing link?

Plasmodium falciparum is responsible for the most severe and deadliest human malaria infection. The most serious complication of this infection is cerebral malaria. Among the proposed hypotheses that seek to explain the manifestation of the neurological syndrome in cerebral malaria is the vascular occlusion/sequestration/mechanic hypothesis, the cytokine storm or inflammatory theory, or a combination of both. Unfortunately, despite the increasing volume of scientific information on cerebral malaria, our understanding of its pathophysiologic mechanism(s) is still very limited. In a bid to maintain its survival and development, P. falciparum exports a large number of proteins into the cytosol of the infected host red blood cell. Prominent among these are the P. falciparum erythrocytes membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1), P. falciparum histidine-rich protein II (PfHRP2), and P. falciparum heat shock proteins 70-x (PfHsp70-x). Functional activities and interaction of these proteins with one another and with recruited host resident proteins are critical factors in the pathology of malaria in general and cerebral malaria in particular. Furthermore, several neurological impairments, including cognitive, behavioral, and motor dysfunctions, are known to be associated with cerebral malaria. Also, the available evidence has implicated glutamate and glutamatergic pathways, coupled with a resultant alteration in serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, and histamine production. While seeking to improve our understanding of the pathophysiology of cerebral malaria, this article seeks to explore the possible links between host/parasite chaperones, and neurotransmitters, in relation to other molecular players in the pathology of cerebral malaria, to explore such links in antimalarial drug discovery.

Anti-malarial activity in a Chinese herbal supplement containing Inonotus obliquus and Panax notoginseng

Plasmodium falciparum, the most virulent human malaria parasite, causes serious diseases among the infected patients in the world and is particularly important in African regions. Although artemisinin combination therapy is recommended by the WHO for treatment of P. falciparum-malaria, the emergence of artemisinin-resistant parasites has become a serious issue which underscores the importance of sustained efforts to obtain novel chemotherapeutic agents against malaria. As a part of such efforts, thirty-nine herbal extracts from traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) were assayed for their anti-malarial activity using 3D7 strain of P. falciparum. Three herbal supplements appeared to possess higher specific anti-malarial activity than the others. One of them (D3) was separated by two sequential fractionations with reverse-phase (the first step) and normal-phase (the second step) liquid chromatography, in which some fractions resulted in higher specific activities than those of D3 or the previous fractions. Cell toxicity assay was performed with the fractions of the first fractionation and demonstrated no obvious cell toxicity. These results suggest that structure determination of the major compound for the anti-malarial activity in D3 may help the development of more potent chemicals in the future.

Evaluation of growth and some unexplored bioactivities of bioreactor grown adventitious root culture of ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer)

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the growth potential and some rarely reported bioactivities (antioxidant, thrombolytic, anticoagulant, and anthelmintic) of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer adventitious roots. To demonstrate the growth, shake flask and laboratory-scale bioreactor cultures have been employed. The obtained biomass was dried and extracted with water, ethanol, and methanol. The growth ratio (12.62 ± 1.03) observed in the bioreactor was significantly higher than in the shake flask culture. The presence of 10 different phytochemical classes, including carbohydrates, saponins, glycosides, and terpenoids were detected in qualitative estimation. Significant quantities of phenolics, flavonoids, proteins, and tannins were determined. Dose-dependent antioxidant activities were observed, and the IC₅₀ values of methanolic and ethanolic extracts were very similar to the standard. The highest (29.26 ± 5.31%) thrombolytic potential was shown by the methanolic extract. The ethanolic extract significantly extended the coagulation times up to 2.5 fold. The highest anthelmintic properties in terms of paralyzing (2.21 ± 0.31 min) and killing (3.69 ± 0.41 min) of the parasitic worms were displayed by the aqueous extract. The in vitro root growth implies the commercial feasibility of ginseng production in Bangladesh and the demonstration of potential bioactivities strengthens medicinal implications and also offering new research areas.

Clinical potentials of ginseng polysaccharide for treating gestational diabetes mellitus

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is the most common glucose metabolism complication or cause of potential impaired glucose tolerance that can occur either before or during pregnancy and lactation. The prevalence of GDM and its related complications in young women is increasing, and this condition may cause serious outcomes and health hazards to the foetus. However, traditional oral hypoglycaemic drugs have potential safety hazards; therefore, it is urgent to develop new, safe, effective, and easily administered agents and remedies. Ginseng polysaccharide (GPS), which is isolated from Panax (P.) ginseng C. A. Meyer, exhibits notably promising biological activities and effects; specifically, it has been shown to lower blood glucose with mild, safe, and nontoxic characteristics, and it can also improve human bodily functions. Hence, we hypothesise that GPS might be used as an additional therapy and candidate agent for treating GDM. This review innovatively summarizes the available reports and evidence from basic studies to analyze the potential for and feasibility of using GPS as a new therapeutic agent for treating GDM. Additionally, for the first time, this review provides a rationale for the use of GPS. Our summarized results show that GPS may be developed as a novel antidiabetic drug and a remedy for use in preventing and treating GDM, with great application prospects.

Effect of Ginsenoside-Rh2 and Curcurbitacin-B on Cryptosporidium parvum in vitro

Ginsenoside-Rh2 and cucurbitacin-B (CuB) are secondary metabolites of Ginseng (Panax ginseng) and Cucurbitaceae plants respectively. We assessed the anticryptosporidial activity of these two functional compounds in a cell culture model of cryptosporidiosis. The highest concentration of each compound that was not toxic to the host cells was used to assess the activity against C. parvum during infection/invasion and growth in HCT-8 cell monolayers. Monolayers were infected with pre-excysted C. parvum oocysts. Infected monolayers were incubated at 37 °C for 24 h and 48 h in the presence of different concentrations of each test compound. A growth resumption assay was performed by incubating infected monolayers in the presence of compounds for 24 h followed by a second 24-h incubation in the absence of compound. To screen for invasion inhibiting activity, freshly excysted C. parvum sporozoites were pre-treated with different concentrations of compounds prior to adding them to the cell monolayers. Paromomycin, a known inhibitor of C. parvum, and DMSO were used as positive and negative control, respectively. The level of infection was initially assessed using an immunofluorescent assay and quantified by real-time PCR. Both compounds were found to strongly inhibit C. parvum intracellular development in a dose-dependent manner. IC₅₀ values of 25 μM for a 24 h development period and 5.52 μM after 48 h development were measured for Rh2, whereas for CuB an IC₅₀ value of 0.169 μg/ml and 0.118 μg/ml were obtained for the same incubation periods. CuB also effectively inhibited resumption of growth, an activity that was not observed with Rh2. CuB was more effective at inhibiting excystation and/or host cell invasion, indicating that this compound also targets extracellular stages of the parasite.

Formation of sclerotia in Sclerotinia ginseng and composition of the sclerotial exudate

Background

Sclerotinia ginseng is a major devastating soil-borne pathogen of ginseng that can cause irreparable damage and large economic losses. This pathogen produces sclerotia, which are among the most persistent resting structures produced by filamentous fungi. The production of an exudate is a common feature of sclerotial development.

Methods

S. ginseng was cultured on 10 different media and the following parameters were measured: mycelial growth rate (mm/day), initial formation time of exudate droplets, total quantity of exudate, number of sclerotia per dish, and sclerotial fresh/dry weight. The composition of the sclerotial exudate was analyzed using four methods (high performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, flame atomic absorption spectrometry, and Nessler’s reagent spectrophotometry).

Results

We found that PDA was the optimal medium for exudate production, while SDA medium resulted in the highest mycelial growth rate. The earliest emergence of exudate droplets from sclerotia was on OA-YE and V8 media. The largest amount of sclerotia and the smallest sclerotia were produced on V8 medium. The maximum and minimum dry/fresh weight were obtained on MEA medium and V8 medium, respectively. The exudate contained organic acids (oxalic acid, gallic acid, ferulic acid, vanillic acid, caffeic acid, and tannic acid), carbohydrates (inositol, glucose, and trehalose), various ions (potassium, sodium, and magnesium), and ammonia.

Discussion

The functions of the identified compounds are discussed within the context of pathogenicity, sclerotial development, and antimicrobial activity. Our findings provide information about the production of sclerotia and the composition of sclerotial exudate that may be useful to develop strategies to control this disease.

Proteomics research and related functional classification of liquid sclerotial exudates of Sclerotinia ginseng

Sclerotinia ginseng is a necrotrophic soil pathogen that mainly infects the root and basal stem of ginseng, causing serious commercial losses. Sclerotia, which are important in the fungal life cycle, are hard, asexual, resting structures that can survive in soil for several years. Generally, sclerotium development is accompanied by the exudation of droplets. Here, the yellowish droplets of S. ginseng were first examined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and the proteome was identified by a combination of different analytical platforms. A total of 59 proteins were identified and classified into six categories: carbohydrate metabolism (39%), oxidation-reduction process (12%), transport and catabolism (5%), amino acid metabolism (3%), other functions (18%), and unknown protein (23%), which exhibited considerable differences in protein composition compared with droplets of S. sclerotium. In the carbohydrate metabolism group, several proteins were associated with sclerotium development, particularly fungal cell wall formation. The pathogenicity and virulence of the identified proteins are also discussed in this report. The findings of this study may improve our understanding of the function of exudate droplets as well as the life cycle and pathogenesis of S. ginseng.

Effects of radix ginseng on microbial infections: a narrative review

OBJECTIVE

To summarized the antimicrobial-like effects of Radix Ginseng, which provide important information to the relevant researchers and clinicians, and will benefit the clinical treatment of infectious diseases.

METHODS

PubMed and Google were used to search for and collect scientific publications related to Radix Ginseng and microbial infections. The authors read, classified, and discussed the associated scientific results or evidences, and summarized the corresponding results.

RESULTS

In this review, recent studies on the beneficial effects of Radix Ginseng extracts on microbial and biofilm infections were reviewed. The importance and significance of Radix Ginseng's beneficial effects are discussed. Evidence for the favorable effects of Radix Ginseng extracts on viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections and the possible underlying mechanisms are summarized.

CONCLUSION

Radix Ginseng might be a promising supplemental remedy for the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases.

Effects of ginsenosides on rat jejunal contractility

CONTEXT

Ginsenosides are primary active ingredients of ginseng, which are believed to have various health benefits. It is found that the biotransformation of ginsenosides mainly takes place in the gastrointestinal tract and the information about ginsenosides-exerted effects on intestinal contractility is not sufficient.

AIMS

The present study proposed that ginsenosides could exert stimulatory or inhibitory effects on intestinal motility depending on the assay condition-related intestinal contractile states and was to characterize the effects of ginsenosides on intestinal motility.

METHODS

Jejunal contractility determination, Western blotting analysis, and real-time polymerase chain reaction were performed to test the effects of total ginsenosides isolated from Panax ginseng C. A. Mey (Araliaceae) root.

RESULTS

The results showed that ginsenosides at the fixed concentration of 20 mg/L exerted bidirectional regulation (BR) on the contractility of isolated jejunal segment (IJS), depending on the contractile states. The contractility of IJS was increased by ginsenosides in low contractile states, which were correlated to the cholinergic activation, and the contractility of IJS was decreased by ginsenosides in high contractile states, which were correlated to the adrenergic activation and nitric oxide related mechanisms. Ginsenosides-induced BR was abolished in the absence of Ca(2+) or by using tetrodotoxin, implicating the requirement of Ca(2+) and the enteric nervous system. Effects of ginsenosides on myosin light chain phosphorylation and the mRNA expression of myosin light chain kinase were also bidirectional.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Results suggest that ginsenosides may have the potential clinical implication for reliving the symptoms of alternative hypo- and hyper-intestinal motility.

Phenotypic and functional analysis of the modification of murine bone marrow dendritic cells (BMDCs) induced by neutral Ginseng polysaccharides (NGP)

In this study, we reveal that a neutral polysaccharide isolated from a Chinese medicinal herb, named Ginseng (Panaxgiseng C.A. Meyer), promotes maturation of BMDCs via inducing changes both inside and outside BMDCs, as well as changes of functions. These affects of NGP on BMDCs were evaluated with use of conventional scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) for morphology of BMDCs, flow cytometry (FCM) for key surface markers of BMDCs, cytochemistry assay, FITC-dextran, bio-assay for their phagocytosis and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for cytokine production by BMDCs. Our results proved that NGP induced maturation of BMDCs as reflected by the downregulation of acid phosphatase (ACP) activity inside the BMDCs, which occurs when phagocytosis of BMDCs decreased, while antigen presentation increased upon maturation. These data also revealed higher expression of MHC II, CD80, CD86, CD83, CD40 and secretion of higher level of IL-12 and low level of TNF-α. Our approach suggests that NGP could therefore stimulate the maturation of murine BMDCs through a series of regulation to the BMDCs.

Maturation of murine bone marrow dendritic cells induced by acidic Ginseng polysaccharides

In this study, we report that a acidic polysaccharide (AGP) isolated from a Chinese medicinal herb, named Ginseng (Panax giseng C.A. Meyer), induces maturation of bone marrow dendritic cells (BMDCs) via concrete changes both inside and outside BMDCs. The impacts of AGP on BMDCs were assessed with use of conventional scanning electronic microscopy (SEM), transmission electronic microscopy (TEM) for morphology, flow cytometry (FCM) for key surface molecules, cytochemistry assay, FITC-dextran, bio-assay for phagocytosis and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for production of cytokines. Our results elucidated that PPS promoted maturation of BMDCs via changes as reflected by the down-regulation of acid phosphatase (ACP) activity inside the BMDCs, which occurs when phagocytosis of BMDCs to antigen decreased, while antigen presentation increased upon maturation, higher expression of key surface molecules of MHC II, CD80, CD86, CD83, and CD40, and releasing higher level of cytokines IL-12 and low level of TNF-α. Our study suggest that AGP play marked immunostimulating role on the maturation of murine BMDCs through precise regulation of phagocytosis and enzyme activities inside the BMDCs.