Developing a 3D composite training model for cranial remodeling

Patient-Specific Highly Realistic Spine Surgery Phantom Trainers

A realistic phantom created from a three-dimensional (3D)-reconstructed digital patient model would enable researchers to investigate the morphological aspects of the pathological spine, thereby resolving the issue of scarce cadaveric specimens. We designed a patient-specific, human-like, reliable, and cost-effective prototype of the examined pathological spine through open-source editing software analysis, a desktop 3D printer, and alginate material. We aimed to validate that the major surgical steps and anatomy replicated the real surgery as it would be conducted in actual patients.We cover the fundamental principles and procedures involved in 3D printing, from spine imaging to phantom manufacturing. Three representative simulation cases were included in the study. All phantoms were sequentially evaluated by surgeons for fidelity. Following each surgery, participants were given a survey that included 20 questions regarding the fidelity of the training phantom.We validated this simulation model by analyzing neurosurgeons' performance on the phantom trainer. Based on a 20-item survey to test content validity and reliability, there was little variation among participants' ratings, and the feedback was consistently positive. The gross appearance of the phantom was analogous to the cadaveric specimen and the phantoms demonstrated an excellent ability to imitate the intraoperative condition. The plastic material expenditure ranged from 170 to 470 g, and the alginate expenditure was 450 g. The total cost of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) varied from $5.1 to $17.6 ($0.03 per gram of ABS), whereas the total cost of alginate was $14.3. The average cost of our phantoms was approximately $25.7, and the 3D printer used in this study costs approximately $200.The basic properties of this phantom were similar to cadaveric tissue during manipulation. We believe our phantoms have the potential to improve skills and minimize risk for patients when integrated into trainee education.

Advancing 3-Dimensional Printed Burr Hole and Craniotomy Models for Neurosurgical Simulation Through Multimaterial Methods

OBJECTIVE

Three-dimensional (3D) printing technology presents a promising avenue for the development of affordable neurosurgical simulation models, addressing many challenges related to the use of cadavers, animal models, and direct patient engagement. The aim of this study is to introduce and evaluate a new high-fidelity neurosurgical simulation model targeted for both burr hole and craniotomy procedures.

METHODS

12 different 3D-printed skull models were manufactured using 5 different materials (polyether ether ketone, White Resin, Rigid 10K, BoneSTN, and SkullSTN) from 3 different 3D print processes (fused filament fabrication, stereolithography [SLA], and material jetting). Six consultant neurosurgeons conducted burr holes and craniotomies on each sample while blinded to these manufacturing details. Participants completed a survey based on the qualities of the models, including mechanical performance, visual appearance, interior feeling, exterior feeling, sound, overall quality, and recommendations for training purposes based on their prior experience completing these procedures on human skulls.

RESULTS

This study found that the multimaterial SLA-printed models consisting of White Resin for the outer table and Rigid 10K for the diploe and inner table were successful in replicating a human skull for burr hole and craniotomy simulation. This was followed by the porous General BoneSTN preset material on a Stratasys J750 Digital Anatomy Printer.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings indicate that widely accessible and economical desktop SLA 3D printers can provide an effective solution in neurosurgical training, thus promoting their integration in hospitals.

Application of Computerized Surgical Planning in Craniosynostosis Surgery

Craniosynostosis, a medical condition characterized by premature fusion of one or multiple cranial sutures, has historically been treated through surgical correction. Computerized Surgical Planning (CSP) and three-dimensional (3D) modeling have gained significant popularity across craniofacial surgery. Through a collaborative effort between surgeons and engineers, it is now possible to virtually execute a surgical plan based on preoperative imaging using computed tomography scans. The CSP workflow involves several elements including virtual 3D modeling, CSP computer-aided surgical guide design, manufacturing of guides and templates, and intraoperative implementation. Through the gradual optimization of this workflow, it has been possible to achieve significant progress in the surgical process including improvements in the preoperative planning of complex craniosynostosis cases and reduction of intraoperative time. Furthermore, CSP and 3D modeling have had a positive impact on surgical simulation and residency training, along with patient education and counseling. This article summarizes the CSP workflow in the treatment of craniosynostosis and the implications of this treatment modality on medical trainee education and patient management.

Emerging Biomedical and Clinical Applications of 3D-Printed Poly(Lactic Acid)-Based Devices and Delivery Systems

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is widely used in the field of medicine due to its biocompatibility, versatility, and cost-effectiveness. Three-dimensional (3D) printing or the systematic deposition of PLA in layers has enabled the fabrication of customized scaffolds for various biomedical and clinical applications. In tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, 3D-printed PLA has been mostly used to generate bone tissue scaffolds, typically in combination with different polymers and ceramics. PLA's versatility has also allowed the development of drug-eluting constructs for the controlled release of various agents, such as antibiotics, antivirals, anti-hypertensives, chemotherapeutics, hormones, and vitamins. Additionally, 3D-printed PLA has recently been used to develop diagnostic electrodes, prostheses, orthoses, surgical instruments, and radiotherapy devices. PLA has provided a cost-effective, accessible, and safer means of improving patient care through surgical and dosimetry guides, as well as enhancing medical education through training models and simulators. Overall, the widespread use of 3D-printed PLA in biomedical and clinical settings is expected to persistently stimulate biomedical innovation and revolutionize patient care and healthcare delivery.

Design and Validation of a 3D Printed Cranio-Facial Simulator: A Novel Tool for Surgical Education

OBJECTIVE

To assess the ability of current 3D printing technology to generate a craniofacial bony and soft tissue anatomical model for use in simulating the performance of a fronto-orbital advancement (FOA) osteotomy and then to further assess the value of the model as an educational tool.

DESIGN

Anatomic models were designed with a process of serial anatomic segmentation/design, 3D printing, dissection, and device refinement. A validation study was conducted with 5 junior and 5 senior plastic surgery residents. The validation study incorporated a multiple-choice Knowledge Assessment test (KA), an Objective Structured Assessment of Technical skills (OSATs), a Global Rating Scale (GRS) and a Michigan Standard Simulation Experience Scale (MiSSES). We compared the scores of both the junior and senior residents and compared junior resident scores, before and after viewing a lecture/demonstration.

RESULTS

MiSSES showed high face validity with a score of 85.1/90, signifying high satisfaction with the simulator learning experience. Simulation and the lecture/demonstration improved the junior resident average KA score from 5.6/10 to 9.6/10 (P = .02), OSATs score from 32.4/66 to 64.4/66 (P < .001) and GRS score from 13.9/35 to 27.5/35 (P < .001). The senior residents OSATs score of 56.3/66 was higher than the pre-lecture juniors (32.4/66) (P < .001), but lower than the post-lecture juniors (64.4/66) (P < .001).

CONCLUSION

We have successfully fabricated a 3D printed craniofacial simulator capable of being used as an educational tool alongside traditional surgical training. Next steps would be improving soft tissue realism, inclusion of patient and disease specific anatomy and creation of models for other surgical specialties.

3D Printing Applications for Craniomaxillofacial Reconstruction: A Sweeping Review

The field of craniomaxillofacial (CMF) surgery is rich in pathological diversity and broad in the ages that it treats. Moreover, the CMF skeleton is a complex confluence of sensory organs and hard and soft tissue with load-bearing demands that can change within millimeters. Computer-aided design (CAD) and additive manufacturing (AM) create extraordinary opportunities to repair the infinite array of craniomaxillofacial defects that exist because of the aforementioned circumstances. 3D printed scaffolds have the potential to serve as a comparable if not superior alternative to the "gold standard" autologous graft. In vitro and in vivo studies continue to investigate the optimal 3D printed scaffold design and composition to foster bone regeneration that is suited to the unique biological and mechanical environment of each CMF defect. Furthermore, 3D printed fixation devices serve as a patient-specific alternative to those that are available off-the-shelf with an opportunity to reduce operative time and optimize fit. Similar benefits have been found to apply to 3D printed anatomical models and surgical guides for preoperative or intraoperative use. Creation and implementation of these devices requires extensive preclinical and clinical research, novel manufacturing capabilities, and strict regulatory oversight. Researchers, manufacturers, CMF surgeons, and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) are working in tandem to further the development of such technology within their respective domains, all with a mutual goal to deliver safe, effective, cost-efficient, and patient-specific CMF care. This manuscript reviews FDA regulatory status, 3D printing techniques, biomaterials, and sterilization procedures suitable for 3D printed devices of the craniomaxillofacial skeleton. It also seeks to discuss recent clinical applications, economic feasibility, and future directions of this novel technology. By reviewing the current state of 3D printing in CMF surgery, we hope to gain a better understanding of its impact and in turn identify opportunities to further the development of patient-specific surgical care.

Evidence for Protective Effects of Peer Play in the Early Years: Better Peer Play Ability at Age 3 Years Predicts Lower Risks of Externalising and Internalising Problems at Age 7 Years in a Longitudinal Cohort Analysis

Peer play ability may be a protective factor against childhood mental health difficulties but there is lack of empirical evidence to support this hypothesis. We conducted longitudinal structural equation modelling study over a population cohort (N = 1676) to examine the effect of age 3 peer play ability on children's age 7 mental health outcomes (measured by the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire subscales). We modelled effects for the entire population and two sub-groups at high-risk for mental health problems based on age 3 temperament. Controlling for demographic variables, temperament, maternal distress, play with parents and number of siblings, better peer play ability at age 3 years predicted lower risk of problems on all 4 SDQ subscales at age 7 years for the general population. For the low-persistence subgroup, better peer play ability at age 3 predicted lower risk of age 7 hyperactivity, emotional and peer problems, whereas better peer play ability at age 3 predicted only lower risk of age 7 hyperactivity for the high-reactivity group. Taken together our results provide evidence that supports the hypothesis that early peer play ability may be a protective factor against later mental health difficulties. We conclude that further research aimed at establishing causation is worth pursuing.

Evaluation of 3D Printed Burr Hole Simulation Models Using 8 Different Materials

OBJECTIVE

3D printing is increasingly used to fabricate three-dimensional neurosurgical simulation models, making training more accessible and economical. 3D printing includes various technologies with different capabilities for reproducing human anatomy. This study evaluated different materials across a broad range of 3D printing technologies to identify the combination that most precisely represents the parietal region of the skull for burr hole simulation.

METHODS

Eight different materials (polyethylene terephthalate glycol, Tough PLA, FibreTuff, White Resin, BoneSTN, SkullSTN, polymide [PA12], glass-filled polyamide [PA12-GF]) across 4 different 3D printing processes (fused filament fabrication, stereolithography, material jetting, selective laser sintering) were produced as skull samples that fit into a larger head model derived from computed tomography imaging. Five neurosurgeons conducted burr holes on each sample while blinded to the details of manufacturing method and cost. Qualities of mechanical drilling, visual appearance, skull exterior, and skull interior (i.e., diploë) and overall opinion were documented, and a final ranking activity was performed along with a semistructured interview.

RESULTS

The study found that 3D printed polyethylene terephthalate glycol (using fused filament fabrication) and White Resin (using stereolithography) were the best models to replicate the skull, surpassing advanced multimaterial samples from a Stratasys J750 Digital Anatomy Printer. The interior (e.g., infill) and exterior structures strongly influenced the overall ranking of samples. All neurosurgeons agreed that practical simulation with 3D printed models can play a vital role in neurosurgical training.

CONCLUSIONS

The study findings reveal that widely accessible desktop 3D printers and materials can play a valuable role in neurosurgical training.

Evaluation of a Role for Virtual Neurosurgical Education for Medical Students Over 2 Years of a Global Pandemic

BACKGROUND

Subinternships are critical experiences for medical students applying into neurosurgery to acquire knowledge of the field and network with colleagues. During the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, in-person rotations were suspended for 2020 and reduced for 2021. In 2020, our department developed a neurosurgical course to address this need. The course was continued in 2021, enabling assessment of student perceptions as the pandemic progresses.

METHODS

The virtual course consisted of weekly 1-hour seminars over a 3- to 4-month period. Prior to starting, participants were sent a comprehensive survey assessing their backgrounds, experiences, and confidences in core concepts across neurosurgical subdisciplines. Participants also completed postcourse surveys assessing the course's value and their confidence in the same topics. Responses from students completing both precourse and postcourse surveys were included, analyzed in pairwise fashion, and compared across course years.

RESULTS

Students shared similar baseline characteristics in terms of demographics, educational background, and exposure to neurosurgery prior to the course. In the 2020 and 2021 cohorts, quality ratings for presentations were favorable for all seminars, and participants reported significantly increased confidence in core topics across all neurosurgical disciplines after the course (2020: 3.36 ± 0.26, P < 0.0001; 2021: 3.56 ± 0.93, P = 0.005). Most participants felt the course would remain useful following the pandemic in both the 2020 (96.9%) and 2021 (100.0%) cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

Survey results suggest that the course adds value for students seeking a basic didactic curriculum to supplement their education, and perhaps, an online curriculum for medical students would still be beneficial going forward as in-person rotations resume.

Development and Validation of a Novel Methodological Pipeline to Integrate Neuroimaging and Photogrammetry for Immersive 3D Cadaveric Neurosurgical Simulation

Background

Visualizing and comprehending 3-dimensional (3D) neuroanatomy is challenging. Cadaver dissection is limited by low availability, high cost, and the need for specialized facilities. New technologies, including 3D rendering of neuroimaging, 3D pictures, and 3D videos, are filling this gap and facilitating learning, but they also have limitations. This proof-of-concept study explored the feasibility of combining the spatial accuracy of 3D reconstructed neuroimaging data with realistic texture and fine anatomical details from 3D photogrammetry to create high-fidelity cadaveric neurosurgical simulations.

Methods

Four fixed and injected cadaver heads underwent neuroimaging. To create 3D virtual models, surfaces were rendered using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scans, and segmented anatomical structures were created. A stepwise pterional craniotomy procedure was performed with synchronous neuronavigation and photogrammetry data collection. All points acquired in 3D navigational space were imported and registered in a 3D virtual model space. A novel machine learning-assisted monocular-depth estimation tool was used to create 3D reconstructions of 2-dimensional (2D) photographs. Depth maps were converted into 3D mesh geometry, which was merged with the 3D virtual model’s brain surface anatomy to test its accuracy. Quantitative measurements were used to validate the spatial accuracy of 3D reconstructions of different techniques.

Results

Successful multilayered 3D virtual models were created using volumetric neuroimaging data. The monocular-depth estimation technique created qualitatively accurate 3D representations of photographs. When 2 models were merged, 63% of surface maps were perfectly matched (mean [SD] deviation 0.7 ± 1.9 mm; range −7 to 7 mm). Maximal distortions were observed at the epicenter and toward the edges of the imaged surfaces. Virtual 3D models provided accurate virtual measurements (margin of error <1.5 mm) as validated by cross-measurements performed in a real-world setting.

Conclusion

The novel technique of co-registering neuroimaging and photogrammetry-based 3D models can (1) substantially supplement anatomical knowledge by adding detail and texture to 3D virtual models, (2) meaningfully improve the spatial accuracy of 3D photogrammetry, (3) allow for accurate quantitative measurements without the need for actual dissection, (4) digitalize the complete surface anatomy of a cadaver, and (5) be used in realistic surgical simulations to improve neurosurgical education.

Development of a 3D printed patient-specific neonatal brain simulation model using multimodality imaging for perioperative management

BACKGROUND

Medical-imaging-based three-dimensional (3D) printed models enable improvement in skills training, surgical planning, and decision-making. This pilot study aimed to use multimodality imaging and to add and compare 3D ultrasound as a future standard to develop realistic neonatal brain models including the ventricular system.

METHODS

Retrospective computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and 3D ultrasound-based brain imaging protocols of five neonatal patients were analyzed and subsequently segmented with the aim of developing a multimodality imaging-based 3D printed model. The ventricular anatomy was analyzed to compare the MRI and 3D ultrasound modalities.

RESULTS

A realistic anatomical model of the neonatal brain, including the ventricular system, was created using MRI and 3D ultrasound data from one patient. T2-weighted isovoxel 3D MRI sequences were found to have better resolution and accuracy than 2D sequences. The surface area, anatomy, and volume of the lateral ventricles derived from both MRI and 3D ultrasound were comparable.

CONCLUSIONS

We created an ultrasound- and MRI-based 3D printed patient-specific neonatal brain simulation model that can be used for perioperative management. To introduce 3D ultrasound as a standard for 3D models, additional dimensional correlations between MRI and ultrasound need to be examined.

IMPACT

We studied the feasibility of implementing 3D ultrasound as a standard for 3D printed models of the neonatal brain. Different imaging modalities were compared and both 3D isotropic MRI and 3D ultrasound imaging are feasible for printing neonatal brain models with good dimensional accuracy and anatomical replication. Further dimensional correlations need to be defined to implement it as a standard to produce 3D printed models.

Role of 3D printing technology in paediatric teaching and training: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

In the UK, undergraduate paediatric training is brief, resulting in trainees with a lower paediatric knowledge base compared with other aspects of medicine. With congenital conditions being successfully treated at childhood, adult clinicians encounter and will need to understand these complex pathologies. Patient-specific 3D printed (3DP) models have been used in clinical training, especially for rarer, complex conditions. We perform a systematic review to evaluate the evidence base in using 3DP models to train paediatricians, surgeons, medical students and nurses.

METHODS

Online databases PubMed, Web of Science and Embase were searched between January 2010 and April 2020 using search terms relevant to "paediatrics", "education", "training" and "3D printing". Participants were medical students, postgraduate trainees or clinical staff. Comparative studies (patient-specific 3DP models vs traditional teaching methods) and non-comparative studies were included. Outcomes gauged objective and subjective measures: test scores, time taken to complete tasks, self-reported confidence and personal preferences on 3DP models. If reported, the cost of and time taken to produce the models were noted.

RESULTS

From 587 results, 15 studies fit the criteria of the review protocol, with 5/15 being randomised controlled studies and 10/15 focussing on cardiovascular conditions. Participants using 3DP models demonstrated improved test scores and faster times to complete procedures and identify anatomical landmarks compared with traditional teaching methods (2D diagrams, lectures, videos and supervised clinical events). User feedback was positive, reporting greater user self-confidence in understanding concepts with users wishing for integrated use of 3DP in regular teaching. Four studies reported the costs and times of production, which varied depending on model complexity and printer. 3DP models were cheaper than 'off-the-shelf' models available on the market and had the benefit of using real-world pathologies. These mostly non-randomised and single-centred studies did not address bias or report long-term or clinically translatable outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

3DP models were associated with greater user satisfaction and good short-term educational outcomes, with low-quality evidence. Multicentred, randomised studies with long-term follow-up and clinically assessed outcomes are needed to fully assess their benefits in this setting.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020179656.

Three-dimensional printing and craniosynostosis surgery

OVERVIEW

The goal of this study was to review the current application and status of three-dimensional printing for craniosynostosis surgery.

METHODS

A literature review was performed using the PubMed/MEDLINE databases for studies published between 2010 and 2020. All studies demonstrating the utilization of three-dimensional printing for craniosynostosis surgery were included.

RESULTS

A total of 15 studies were ultimately selected. This includes studies demonstrating novel three-dimensional simulation and printing workflows, studies utilizing three-dimensional printing for surgical simulation, as well as case reports describing prior experiences.

CONCLUSION

The incorporation of three-dimensional printing into the domain of craniosynostosis surgery has many potential benefits. This includes streamlining surgical planning, developing patient-specific template guides, enhancing residency training, as well as aiding in patient counseling. However, the current state of the literature remains in the validation stage. Further study with larger case series, direct comparisons with control groups, and prolonged follow-up times is necessary before more widespread implementation is justified.