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Lastra González D, Nishikawa K, Eto K, Terui S, Kamimura R, Viñuela Rodríguez N, Yoshikawa N, Tominaga A. Lack of variations in the salamander chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans, at its alleged origin: Updating its Japanese distribution with new evidence. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0305228. [PMID: 38870137 PMCID: PMC11175521 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0305228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans [Bsal] is causing declines in the amphibian populations. After a decade of mapping the pathogen in Europe, where it is causing dramatic outbreaks, and North America, where its arrival would affect to the salamander's biodiversity hotspot, little is known about its current status in Asia, from presumably is native. Japan has several species considered as potential carriers, but no regulation is implemented against Bsal spreading. Previous Bsal known presence detected various cases on the Okinawa Island, southwestern Japan. Previous studies on its sister species, B. dendrobatidis presented a high genomic variation in this area and particularly on Cynops ensicauda. Here, we have done the largest monitoring to date in Japan on the Cynops genus, focusing on Okinawa Island and updating its distribution and providing more information to unravel the still unknown origin of Bsal. Interestingly, we have provided revealing facts about different detectability depending on the used molecular techniques and changes in its Japanese distribution. All in all, the Bsal presence in Japan, together with its low variability in the sequenced amplicons, and the lack of apparent mortalities, may indicate that this part of Asia has a high diversity of chytrids.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Lastra González
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Education, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Prague – Suchdol, Czech Republic
| | - Kanto Nishikawa
- Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida Hon-machi, Sakyo, Japan
| | - Koshiro Eto
- Kitakyushu Museum of Natural History & Human History, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shigeharu Terui
- Environment Grasp Promotion Network-PEG, Nonprofit Organization, Kushiro-shi, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Ryo Kamimura
- Graduate school of Engineering and Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Nuria Viñuela Rodríguez
- Molecular Invertebrate Systematics and Ecology [MISE] Lab, Graduate School of Engineering and Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Natsuhiko Yoshikawa
- Department of Zoology, National Museum of Nature and Science, Tokyo, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - Atsushi Tominaga
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Education, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
- Graduate school of Engineering and Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
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Sun D, Ellepola G, Herath J, Meegaskumbura M. Ecological Barriers for an Amphibian Pathogen: A Narrow Ecological Niche for Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans in an Asian Chytrid Hotspot. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:911. [PMID: 37755019 PMCID: PMC10532633 DOI: 10.3390/jof9090911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 09/02/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The chytrid fungal pathogens Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) and B. dendrobatidis (Bd) are driving amphibian extinctions and population declines worldwide. As their origins are believed to be in East/Southeast Asia, this region is crucial for understanding their ecology. However, Bsal screening is relatively limited in this region, particularly in hotspots where Bd lineage diversity is high. To address this gap, we conducted an extensive Bsal screening involving 1101 individuals from 36 amphibian species, spanning 17 natural locations and four captive facilities in the biodiversity-rich Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region (GAR). Our PCR assays yielded unexpected results, revealing the complete absence of Bsal in all tested samples including 51 individuals with Bd presence. To understand the potential distribution of Bsal, we created niche models, utilizing existing occurrence records from both Asia and Europe. These models estimated potential suitable habitats for Bsal largely in the northern and southwestern parts of the GAR. Although Bsal was absent in our samples, the niche models identified 10 study sites as being potentially suitable for this pathogen. Interestingly, out of these 10 sites, Bd was detected at 8. This suggests that Bsal and Bd could possibly co-exist in these habitats, if Bsal were present. Several factors seem to influence the distribution of Bsal in Asia, including variations in temperature, local caudate species diversity, elevation, and human population density. However, it is climate-related factors that hold the greatest significance, accounting for a notable 60% contribution. The models propose that the specific climatic conditions of arid regions, primarily seen in the GAR, play a major role in the distribution of Bsal. Considering the increased pathogenicity of Bsal at stable and cooler temperatures (10-15 °C), species-dependent variations, and the potential for seasonal Bd-Bsal interactions, we emphasize the importance of periodic monitoring for Bsal within its projected range in the GAR. Our study provides deeper insights into Bsal's ecological niche and the knowledge generated will facilitate conservation efforts in amphibian populations devastated by chytrid pathogens across other regions of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Sun
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning 530000, China; (D.S.)
| | - Gajaba Ellepola
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning 530000, China; (D.S.)
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Kandy 20400, Sri Lanka
| | - Jayampathi Herath
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning 530000, China; (D.S.)
- School of Biomedical Sciences, International Institute of Health Sciences (IIHS), No. 704 Negombo Road, Welisara 71722, Sri Lanka
| | - Madhava Meegaskumbura
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Forest Ecology and Conservation, College of Forestry, Guangxi University, Nanning 530000, China; (D.S.)
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Ujszegi J, Boros Z, Fodor A, Vajna B, Hettyey A. Metabolites of Xenorhabdus bacteria are potent candidates for mitigating amphibian chytridiomycosis. AMB Express 2023; 13:88. [PMID: 37615904 PMCID: PMC10449739 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-023-01585-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Chytridiomycosis, caused by the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), has caused extreme losses in amphibian biodiversity. Finding bacteria that produce metabolites with antifungal properties may turn out to be invaluable in the fight against this devastating disease. The entomopathogenic bacteria, Xenorhabdus szentirmaii and X. budapestensis produce secondary metabolites that are effective against a wide range of fungal plant pathogens. To assess whether they may also be effective against Bd, we extracted cell-free culture media (CFCM) from liquid cultures of X. szentirmaii and X. budapestensis and tested their ability to inhibit Bd growth in vitro. As a second step, using juvenile common toads (Bufo bufo) experimentally infected with Bd we also tested the in vivo antifungal efficacy of X. szentirmaii CFCM diluted to 2 and 10% (v/v), while also assessing possible malign side effects on amphibians. Results of the in vitro experiment documented highly effective growth inhibition by CFCMs of both Xenorhabdus species. The in vivo experiment showed that treatment with CFCM of X. szentirmaii applied at a dilution of 10% resulted in infection intensities reduced by ca. 73% compared to controls and to juvenile toads treated with CFCM applied at a dilution of 2%. At the same time, we detected no negative side effects of treatment with CFCM on toad survival and development. Our results clearly support the idea that metabolites of X. szentirmaii, and perhaps of several other Xenorhabdus species as well, may prove highly useful for the treatment of Bd infected amphibians.
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Affiliation(s)
- János Ujszegi
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Budapest, Hungary.
- Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Zsófia Boros
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Genetics, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Microbiology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - András Fodor
- Department of Genetics, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Balázs Vajna
- Department of Microbiology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Attila Hettyey
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Plant Protection Institute, Centre for Agricultural Research, Eötvös Loránd Research Network, Budapest, Hungary
- Department of Systematic Zoology and Ecology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
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Castro Monzon F, Rödel MO, Ruland F, Parra-Olea G, Jeschke JM. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans' Amphibian Host Species and Invasion Range. ECOHEALTH 2022; 19:475-486. [PMID: 36611108 PMCID: PMC9898388 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-022-01620-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal), a species related to the destructive pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), was found and identified in Europe in 2013. Now, a decade later, a large amount of information is available. This includes data from studies in the field, reports of infection in captive amphibians, laboratory studies testing host susceptibility, and data from prospective studies that test for Bsal's presence in a location. We conducted a systematic review of the published literature and compiled a dataset of Bsal tests. We identified 67 species that have been reported positive for Bsal, 20 of which have a threatened conservation status. The distribution of species that have been found with infection encompasses 69 countries, highlighting the potential threat that Bsal poses. We point out where surveillance to detect Bsal have taken place and highlight areas that have not been well monitored. The large number of host species belonging to the families Plethodontidae and Salamandridae suggests a taxonomic pattern of susceptibility. Our results provide insight into the risk posed by Bsal and identifies vulnerable species and areas where surveillance is needed to fill existing knowledge gaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Castro Monzon
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany.
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany.
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, AP 70-153, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | - Mark-Oliver Rödel
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Museum für Naturkunde-Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science, Invalidenstr. 43, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Florian Ruland
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Gabriela Parra-Olea
- Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico, AP 70-153, 04510, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Jonathan M Jeschke
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Str. 1-3, 14195, Berlin, Germany
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Müggelseedamm 310, 12587, Berlin, Germany
- Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research, Altensteinstr. 34, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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Moubarak M, Fischhoff IR, Han BA, Castellanos AA. A spatially explicit risk assessment of salamander populations to
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
in the United States. DIVERS DISTRIB 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.13627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Barbara A. Han
- Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies Millbrook New York USA
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Palomar G, Jakóbik J, Bosch J, Kolenda K, Kaczmarski M, Jośko P, Roces-Díaz JV, Stachyra P, Thumsová B, Zieliński P, Pabijan M. Emerging infectious diseases of amphibians in Poland: distribution and environmental drivers. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2021; 147:1-12. [PMID: 34734569 DOI: 10.3354/dao03631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases are a threat to biodiversity and have taken a large toll on amphibian populations worldwide. The chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal), and the iridovirus Ranavirus (Rv), are of concern as all have contributed to amphibian declines. In central and eastern Europe, their geographical and host distributions and main environmental drivers determining prevalence are poorly known. We screened over 1000 amphibians from natural and captive populations in Poland for the presence of Bd, Bsal and Rv. In wild amphibian populations, we found that Bd is widespread, present in 46 out of 115 sampled localities as well as 2 captive colonies, and relatively common with overall prevalence at 14.4% in 9 species. We found lower prevalence of Rv at 2.4%, present in 11 out of 92 sampling sites, with a taxonomic breadth of 8 different amphibian species. Bsal infection was not detected in any individuals. In natural populations, Pelophylax esculentus and Bombina variegata accounted for 75% of all Bd infections, suggesting a major role for these 2 species as pathogen reservoirs in Central European freshwater habitats. General linear models showed that climatic as well as landscape features are associated with Bd infection in Poland. We found that higher average annual temperature constrains Bd infection, while landscapes with numerous water bodies or artificial elements (a surrogate for urbanization) increase the chances of infection. Our results show that a combination of climatic and landscape variables may drive regional and local pathogen emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gemma Palomar
- Institute of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Kraków, Poland
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Bosch J, Martel A, Sopniewski J, Thumsová B, Ayres C, Scheele BC, Velo-Antón G, Pasmans F. Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans Threat to the Iberian Urodele Hotspot. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7080644. [PMID: 34436183 PMCID: PMC8400424 DOI: 10.3390/jof7080644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent introduction of the chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans into northeastern Spain threatens salamander diversity on the Iberian Peninsula. We assessed the current epidemiological situation with extensive field sampling of urodele populations. We then sought to delineate priority regions and identify conservation units for the Iberian Peninsula by estimating the susceptibility of Iberian urodeles using laboratory experiments, evidence from mortality events in nature and captivity and inference from phylogeny. None of the 1395 field samples, collected between 2015 and 2021 were positive for Bsal and no Bsal-associated mortality events were recorded, in contrast to the confirmed occurrence of Bsal outbreak previously described in 2018. We classified five of eleven Iberian urodele species as highly susceptible, predicting elevated mortality and population declines following potential Bsal emergence in the wild, five species as intermediately susceptible with variable disease outcomes and one species as resistant to disease and mortality. We identified the six conservation units (i.e., species or lineages within species) at highest risk and propose priority areas for active disease surveillance and field biosecurity measures. The magnitude of the disease threat identified here emphasizes the need for region-tailored disease abatement plans that couple active disease surveillance to rapid and drastic actions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Bosch
- Biodiversity Research Institute (IMIB), University of Oviedo-Principality of Asturias-CSIC, 33600 Mieres, Spain;
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +34-6-777-724-02
| | - An Martel
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases, Ghent University, B9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (A.M.); (F.P.)
| | - Jarrod Sopniewski
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia; (J.S.); (B.C.S.)
| | - Barbora Thumsová
- Biodiversity Research Institute (IMIB), University of Oviedo-Principality of Asturias-CSIC, 33600 Mieres, Spain;
- Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales-CSIC, 28006 Madrid, Spain
- Asociación Herpetologica Española, 28006 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Cesar Ayres
- Asociación Herpetologica Española, 28006 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Ben C. Scheele
- Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australia; (J.S.); (B.C.S.)
| | - Guillermo Velo-Antón
- CIBIO/InBIO, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal;
- Grupo GEA, Departamento de Ecoloxía e Bioloxía Animal, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Frank Pasmans
- Wildlife Health Ghent, Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Poultry Diseases, Ghent University, B9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (A.M.); (F.P.)
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Dual Detection of the Chytrid Fungi Batrachochytrium spp. with an Enhanced Environmental DNA Approach. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7040258. [PMID: 33808405 PMCID: PMC8065926 DOI: 10.3390/jof7040258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Environmental DNA (eDNA) is becoming an indispensable tool in biodiversity monitoring, including the monitoring of invasive species and pathogens. Aquatic chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) and B. salamandrivorans (Bsal) are major threats to amphibians. However, the use of eDNA for detecting these pathogens has not yet become widespread, due to technological and economic obstacles. Using the enhanced eDNA approach (a simple and cheap sampling protocol) and the universally accepted qPCR assay, we confirmed the presence of Bsal and Bd in previously identified sites in Spain, including four sites that were new for Bsal. The new approach was successfully tested in laboratory conditions using manufactured gene fragments (gBlocks) of the targeted DNA sequence. A comparison of storage methods showed that samples kept in ethanol had the best DNA yield. Our results showed that the number of DNA copies in the Internal Transcribed Spacer region was 120 copies per Bsal cell. Eradication of emerging diseases requires quick and cost-effective solutions. We therefore performed cost-efficiency analyses of standard animal swabbing, a previous eDNA approach, and our own approach. The procedure presented here was evaluated as the most cost-efficient. Our findings will help to disseminate information about efforts to prevent the spread of chytrid fungi.
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Lastra González D, Baláž V, Chajma P, Vojar J. Surveying for Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans presence in Spanish captive collections of amphibians. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2020; 142:99-103. [PMID: 33269721 DOI: 10.3354/dao03535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal), a pathogenic fungus causing the fatal disease chytridiomycosis in amphibians, was likely introduced to Europe through the trade in pet salamanders from Asia and then escaped into wild populations. Among European countries, Spain has a large number of private breeders and keepers of pet salamanders, and cases of Bsal in wild and captive populations already have been confirmed there. However, surveillance for the pathogen in Spanish collections of amphibians is sparse. Therefore, assisted by private owners and breeders, we surveyed 10 amphibian collections and analysed a total of 317 samples for presence of Bsal. All of our analyses yielded negative results. However, this apparent lack of Bsal cases in captivity should not encourage relaxation of vigilance, quarantine efforts or good practices. Because amphibian collections represent highly dynamic environments (animals are coming in and out), the pathogen could easily be introduced into a collection by new individuals. Any case of Bsal infection in captive animals could lead to its further spread to wild populations of susceptible species, potentially decimating them, and thus should be prevented.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Lastra González
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00 Prague - Suchdol, Czech Republic
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Rollins-Smith LA. Global Amphibian Declines, Disease, and the Ongoing Battle between Batrachochytrium Fungi and the Immune System. HERPETOLOGICA 2020. [DOI: 10.1655/0018-0831-76.2.178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Louise A. Rollins-Smith
- Departments of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology and Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232, USA Department of Biological Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37235, USA
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Carter ED, Miller DL, Peterson AC, Sutton WB, Cusaac JPW, Spatz JA, Rollins‐Smith L, Reinert L, Bohanon M, Williams LA, Upchurch A, Gray MJ. Conservation risk of
Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans
to endemic lungless salamanders. Conserv Lett 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/conl.12675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Edward Davis Carter
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of ForestryWildlife and FisheriesUniversity of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture Knoxville Tennessee
| | - Debra L. Miller
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of ForestryWildlife and FisheriesUniversity of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture Knoxville Tennessee
- Department of Biomedical and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary MedicineUniversity of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture Knoxville Tennessee
| | - Anna C. Peterson
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of ForestryWildlife and FisheriesUniversity of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture Knoxville Tennessee
| | - William B. Sutton
- Department of Agricultural and Environmental SciencesTennessee State University Nashville Tennessee
| | - Joseph Patrick W. Cusaac
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of ForestryWildlife and FisheriesUniversity of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture Knoxville Tennessee
| | - Jennifer A. Spatz
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of ForestryWildlife and FisheriesUniversity of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture Knoxville Tennessee
| | - Louise Rollins‐Smith
- Department of PathologyMicrobiology & ImmunologyVanderbilt University Nashville Tennessee
| | - Laura Reinert
- Department of PathologyMicrobiology & ImmunologyVanderbilt University Nashville Tennessee
| | - Markese Bohanon
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of ForestryWildlife and FisheriesUniversity of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture Knoxville Tennessee
| | - Lori A. Williams
- North Carolina Wildlife Resources Commission Raleigh North Carolina
| | | | - Matthew J. Gray
- Center for Wildlife Health, Department of ForestryWildlife and FisheriesUniversity of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture Knoxville Tennessee
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