Accuracy of the New Creatinine-based Equations for Estimating Glomerular Filtration Rate in Koreans

Long-term joint exposure of outdoor air pollutants and impaired kidney function in Korean adults: A mixture analysis based on a nationwide sample (2007-2019)

We explored the association between exposure to air pollutant mixture and renal function. A nationwide sample of 69,066 Korean adults was analyzed. The 1-year moving averages of the concentrations of PM10, PM2.5, SO₂, NO₂, CO, and O₃ were estimated using the air pollution modeling. The outcome was estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) value. Quantile-based G-computation analyses were performed to determine how a simultaneous increase in the air pollutant mixture by one quartile was associated with changes in eGFR levels. The mean of eGFR was 88.9 among the sample. In the quantile-based G-computation model, one-quartile increase in the levels of air pollutant mixture was linked to a decrease in eGFR by -0.85 (95 % CI: -1.14, -0.57), with CO and PM2.5 contributing 52.3 % and 37.3 %, respectively, to the negative association between the pollutant mixture and eGFR. Our results suggest that long-term exposure to air pollutant mixtures is linked to impaired renal function.

Performance of the 2021 Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate CKD-EPI Refit and the European Kidney Function Consortium (EKFC) Formulas

Background: The glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is a universal clinical measure central to assessing kidney function and to the management of kidney disorders. Several formulas for the estimation of GFR are in use. The European Kidney Function Consortium (EKFC) formula has been reported to more accurately estimate the GFR as compared to the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) formula and its recent version (REFIT equation) in European and African populations. However, validation of the EKFC equation in diverse U.S. populations, especially the Black subpopulation, is needed. Methods: Data from the electronic medical records of 75,442 individuals presenting to a large safety net county hospital with measurements of serum creatinine and/or iohexol clearance studies were used to calculate the estimated GFR (eGFR) and to determine CKD stage using the various reported eGFR formulas. The correlation between eGFR and measured GFR was determined for each equation. Results: The median eGFR for Black participants using the CKD-EPI, REFIT, and EKFC formulas was 130.6 mL/min/1.73 m2, 82.0 mL/min/1.73 m2, and 80.6 mL/min/1.73 m2 (p < 0.001), respectively. For White participants, the median eGFR using the CKD-EPI, REFIT, and EKFC formulas was 145.3 mL/min/1.73 m2, 105.6 mL/min/1.73 m2, and 99.2 mL/min/1.73 m2, respectively (p < 0.001). The REFIT equation underestimates the mGFR in Black individuals at eGFR < 80 mL/min per 1.73 m2 and in White individuals at eGFR > 20 mL/min per 1.73 m2. In comparison, the EKFC equation underestimates the mGFR at eGFR > 20 mL/min per 1.73 m2 in both Black and White individuals. The REFIT equation had the least absolute median bias as compared to EKFC and CKD-EPI in both Black and White participants (p < 0.0001). The P30 of the REFIT and EKFC equations was not statistically different for either Black or White participants (p = 0.16, p = 0.37). Conclusions: Although the accuracies (P30) of the EKFC and REFIT equations are not statistically significant (p = 0.16 and 0.37, Black and White individuals, respectively), adopting the EKFC formula in Americans requires the evaluation of each subpopulation. Both the EKFC and REFIT formulas underestimate the mGFR at a lower eGFR, which may have a direct impact on CKD classification for Black and White patients, with potentially significant implications for clinical management.

Optimizing Initial Vancomycin Dosing in Hospitalized Patients Using Machine Learning Approach for Enhanced Therapeutic Outcomes: Algorithm Development and Validation Study

BACKGROUND

Vancomycin is commonly dosed using standard weight-based methods before dose adjustments are made through therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM). However, variability in initial dosing can lead to suboptimal therapeutic outcomes. A predictive model that personalizes initial dosing based on patient-specific pharmacokinetic factors prior to administration may enhance target attainment and minimize the need for subsequent dose adjustments.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to develop and evaluate a machine learning (ML)-based algorithm to predict whether an initial vancomycin dose falls within the therapeutic range of the 24-hour area under the curve to minimum inhibitory concentration, thereby optimizing the initial vancomycin dosage.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted using hospitalized patients who received intravenous vancomycin and underwent pharmacokinetic TDM consultation (n=415). The cohort was randomly divided into training and testing datasets in a 7:3 ratio, and multiple ML techniques were used to develop an algorithm for optimizing initial vancomycin dosing. The optimal algorithm, referred to as the OPTIVAN algorithm, was selected and validated using an external cohort (n=268). We evaluated the performance of 4 ML models: gradient boosting machine, random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), and eXtreme gradient boosting (XGB). Additionally, a web-based clinical support tool was developed to facilitate real-time vancomycin TDM application in clinical practice.

RESULTS

The SVM algorithm demonstrated the best predictive performance, achieving an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUROC) of 0.832 (95% CI 0.753-0.900) for the training dataset and 0.720 (95% CI 0.654-0.783) for the external validation dataset. The gradient boosting machine followed closely with AUROC scores of 0.802 (95% CI 0.667-0.857) for the training dataset and 0.689 (95% CI 0.596-0.733) for the validation dataset. In contrast, both XGB and RF exhibited relatively lower performance. XGB achieved AUROC values of 0.769 (95% CI 0.671-0.853) for the training set and 0.707 (95% CI 0.644-0.772) for the validation set, while RF recorded AUROC scores of 0.759 (95% CI 0.656-0.846) for the test dataset and 0.693 (95% CI 0.625-0.757) for the external validation set. The SVM model incorporated 7 covariates: age, BMI, glucose, blood urea nitrogen, estimated glomerular filtration rate, hematocrit, and daily dose per body weight. Subgroup analyses demonstrated consistent performance across different patient categories, such as renal function, sex, and BMI. A web-based TDM analysis tool was developed using the OPTIVAN algorithm.

CONCLUSIONS

The OPTIVAN algorithm represents a significant advancement in personalized initial vancomycin dosing, addressing the limitations of current TDM practices. By optimizing the initial dose, this algorithm may reduce the need for subsequent dosage adjustments. The algorithm's web-based app is easy to use, making it a practical tool for clinicians. This study highlights the potential of ML to enhance the effectiveness of vancomycin treatment.

GFRs in Chinese CKD: A systematic review

PURPOSE

This was an evidence-based study to assess which creatinine-based equation was most useful for estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) in Chinese adults with chronic kidney disease (CKD).

METHODS

Multiple databases were searched to collect relevant studies on creatinine-based eGFR equations for Chinese adults with CKD in Chinese and English from January 2009 to January 2023, using "glomerular filtration rate", "GFR equations", "Chinese CKD", "chronic kidney disease", "equation development" and "equation validation". The quality of each study was assessed using the diagnostic test accuracy review by RevMan 5.4 software. The equation name, study publication year, first author, reference method for eGFR, CKD numbers, age (age ranges) of individuals, mGFR value, bias, precision, and 30% accuracy (P30) of each included equation were recorded accordingly by 2 independent investigators.

RESULTS

Of the 838 studies identified, 23 studies based on 6 creatinine-based GFR equations were included in the present review, ie, the CKD-EPI, Asian modified CKD-EPI, FAS, EKFC, Xiangya, and BSI1 equations. A total of 2979 CKD patients were included for FAS equation external assessment, and the total P30 was 72.6 %; 970 CKD patients for the EKFC equation, and the total P30 was 73.1 %. 1778 CKD patients (≥60 years of age) with a mean eGFR from 39.7 to 47.6 mL/min/1.73 m2 were pooled to assess the prediction accuracy of the BSI1 equation and demonstrated that the bias was small (-3.8-3.5 mL/min/1.73 m2), the precision was excellent (10.2-16.8 mL/min/1.73 m2), and the total P30 was 69.6 %.

CONCLUSIONS

Currently, the FAS and EKFC equations have higher P30 for eGFR among Chinese adult CKD patients. The bias and precision of BSI1 formulas was acceptable for eGFR in elderly ≥ 60 years of age, while the P30 was relatively low. Therefore, there is a clinical need to develop more accurate equations for eGFR in older CKD adults. While promising, these findings require further validation in large well controlled clinical studies.

Toward High-Quality Real-World Laboratory Data in the Era of Healthcare Big Data

With Industry 4.0, big data and artificial intelligence have become paramount in the field of medicine. Electronic health records, the primary source of medical data, are not collected for research purposes but represent real-world data; therefore, they have various constraints. Although structured, laboratory data often contain unstandardized terminology or missing information. The major challenge lies in the lack of standardization of test results in terms of metrology, which complicates comparisons across laboratories. In this review, we delve into the essential components necessary for integrating real-world laboratory data into high-quality big data, including the standardization of terminology, data formats, equations, and the harmonization and standardization of results. Moreover, we address the transference and adjustment of laboratory results, along with the certification for quality of laboratory data. By discussing these critical aspects, we seek to shed light on the challenges and opportunities inherent to utilizing real-world laboratory data within the framework of healthcare big data and artificial intelligence.

Renal Outcomes With Renin-Angiotensin System Blockers After Unilateral Nephrectomy

Introduction

Despite the benefits of renin-angiotensin system (RAS) blockers, their immediate use after nephrectomy has been limited because of concerns about impaired renal adaptation. We aimed to evaluate the effect of RAS blockers immediately after unilateral nephrectomy on renal adaptation.

Methods

This single-center retrospective cohort study included 580 patients who underwent elective unilateral nephrectomy between 2010 and 2020 and had preexisting hypertension with antihypertensive medications. Patients were divided into groups according to the postnephrectomy RAS blocker use. The primary outcome was renal adaptation defined as (postnephrectomy estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] ÷ prenephrectomy eGFR) × 100 at 1 month after surgery. Secondary outcomes included hyperkalemia during the first year and mortality or end-stage kidney disease within 3 years.

Results

The mean age was 65.2 years, 406 (70%) were male, and 308 (53.1%) received RAS blockers after nephrectomy. The RAS blocker group was younger (63.8 vs. 66.8 years) and had a higher eGFR (79.4 vs. 75.5 ml/min per 1.73 m2) than the control group. There were no differences between the groups in renal adaptation at 1 month (67.1% vs. 66.8%; P = 0.711) or in the incidence of hyperkalemia until 1 year postoperatively. The RAS blocker use was associated with better dialysis-free survival (Adjusted hazard ratio of multivariable Cox-regression model: 0.531; 95% confidence interval: 0.329-0.857; P = 0.010].

Conclusion

The immediate use of RAS blockers after unilateral nephrectomy did not deteriorate renal adaptation or increase hyperkalemia. Furthermore, the RAS blockers were associated with improved prognosis in terms of end-stage kidney disease and mortality.

Evaluation of Race-Neutral Glomerular Filtration Rate Estimating Equations in an Indian Population

Introduction

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) estimation equations have not been extensively validated in the Indian population. Preliminary data showed that the widely used creatinine-based Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPICr) 2009 significantly overestimated GFR in Indians. Newer estimated GFR (eGFR) equations based on creatinine and cystatin C, omitting the race, have been recently proposed. We investigated the performance of race-free eGFR equations in the Indian population.

Methods

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and potential kidney donors attending the outpatient clinic at the Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research Chandigarh, India, were screened for enrolment. GFR was measured by urinary clearance of inulin and plasma clearance of iohexol. Performance of eGFR equations (CKD-EPICr(2021), CKD-EPICr-Cys(2021), CKD-EPICr(2009), CKD-EPICr-Cys(2012), CKD-EPICys, 2020Csy-B2M-BTP and 2020Cr-Csy-B2M-BTP, EKFCcr, EKFCcys, and EKFCcr-cys) were assessed against measured GFR (mGFR) using bias, precision, and accuracy (root mean square error [RMSE], mean absolute error [MAE] and P30 [% with eGFR within 30% of mGFR]).

Results

A total of 412 subjects (55% with CKD), average age 47 ± 11 years with an equal distribution of males and females were enrolled. The mean mGFR in the study population was 54.2 ± 30.2 ml/min per 1.73 m2. The average mGFR in the potential kidney donor's subgroup was 79.5 ± 23.2 ml/min per 1.73 m2. Bias was highest for creatinine-based eGFR equations (CKD-EPIcr(2021): -19.2 [-21.3 to -17.0] ml/min per 1.73 m2and CKD-EPIcr(2009): -17.0 [-19.1 to -15.0] ml/min per 1.73 m2). Cystatin C- (either alone or with other markers) based equations were slightly better but still did not reach P30 ≥ 80%.

Conclusions

Race-neutral CKD-EPICr(2021) equation did not significantly improve performance as compared to CKD-EPICr(2009) equation. These observations emphasize the need for developing new eGFR equations for Indians and to standardize the mGFR for easy access to care providers for individualized patient care.

Estimated GFR in the Korean and US Asian Populations Using the 2021 Creatinine-Based GFR Estimating Equation Without Race

Rationale & Objective

In 2021, the new Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) updated the creatinine-based estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) equation and removed the coefficient for race. The development and validation of this equation involved binarizing race into African American and non-African American, involving few Asian participants. This study aimed to examine the difference between the 2021 equation and the previous 2009 equation on CKD prevalence estimates in 2 Asian populations.

Study Design

Observational study using 2 national surveys.

Setting & Participants

Participants from the 2019 Korea National Health and Nutrition Survey and participants self-reported as Asian from the 2011-2020 US National Health and Nutrition Survey.

Exposure

eGFR using 2009 and 2021 CKD-EPI creatinine equation.

Outcomes

Prevalence of CKD (eGFR <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 or urine albumin-creatinine ratio ≥30 mg/g).

Analytical Approach

Sampling-weighted prevalence estimated using the 2009 and 2021 equations as well as the percentage of individuals with CKD G3+ using the 2009 equation being reclassified as not having CKD G3+ using the 2021 equation.

Results

The prevalence of CKD estimated using the 2021 equation was 9.75% (95% confidence intervals [CI], 8.80-10.80%) in Koreans and 11.60% (95% CI, 10.23-13.13%) in US Asians. The prevalence of CKD estimated using the 2021 equation was slightly lower than that using the 2009 equation in both Korean and US Asian populations by 0.63% (95% CI, 0.44-0.90%) and 0.84% (95% CI, 0.52-1.34%), respectively. Furthermore, 32.8% and 30.2% of Koreans and US Asians with CKD G3-5, respectively, estimated using the 2009 equation were reclassified as not having CKD G3-5 when the eGFR was calculated using the 2021 equation.

Limitations

Measured GFR was not available.

Conclusions

Use of the 2021 CKD-EPI creatinine equation leads to a small decrease in CKD prevalence in both Korean and US Asian populations, and of similar magnitude, resulting in significant reclassification among those originally classified as having CKD G3+.

Assessment of the 2023 European Kidney Function Consortium (EKFC) equations in a Chinese adult population

OBJECTIVES

The European Kidney Function Consortium (EKFC) developed two novel equations in 2023 for estimating glomerular filtration rate (GFR): one sex-free cystatin C-based equation (EKFCCys) and one creatinine-cystatin C combined equation (EKFCCr-Cys). This study compared their performance with the previous creatinine-based EKFC equation (EKFCCr) and commonly used Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) and Berlin Initiative Study (BIS) equations in Chinese adults.

METHODS

A total of 2,438 Chinese adults (mean age=53.04 years) who underwent the 99mTc-DTPA renal dynamic imaging for reference GFR (rGFR) were included. Diagnostic value was evaluated using correlation coefficients, sensitivity, specificity, and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (ROCAUC). Performance was assessed in terms of bias, precision (interquartile range of the median difference [IQR]), accuracy (percentage of estimates ±30 % of rGFR [P30], and root-mean-square error [RMSE]) across age, sex, and rGFR subgroups. Gender differences in bias and P30 were also analyzed.

RESULTS

Average rGFR was 73.37 mL/min/1.73 m2. EKFC equations showed stronger correlations and larger AUCs compared to the parallel CKD-EPI equations, with EKFCCr-Cys demonstrating the greatest improvement (R=0.771, ROCAUC=0.913). Concerning bias, precision, and accuracy, EKFC equations consistently outperformed CKD-EPI equations. EKFCCr-Cys and EKFCCr performed acceptably well in the entire population and were equivalent to BIS equations in the elderly. All equations, including EKFCCys, showed similar P30 accuracy across sexes.

CONCLUSIONS

EKFC equations provided a reasonable alternative for estimating GFR in the Chinese adult population. While EKFCCys did not outperform EKFCCr, EKFCCr-Cys improved the accuracy of single-marker equations.

Evaluation of the clinical value of 10 estimating glomerular filtration rate equations and construction of a prediction model for kidney damage in adults from central China

Objectives

This study aimed to evaluate 10 estimating glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) equations in central China population and construct a diagnostic prediction model for assessing the kidney damage severity.

Methods

The concordance of 10 eGFR equations was investigated in healthy individuals from central China, and their clinical effectiveness in diagnosing kidney injury was evaluated. Subsequently, relevant clinical indicators were selected to develop a clinical prediction model for kidney damage.

Results

The overall concordance between CKD-EPIASR-Scr and CKD-EPI2021-Scr was the highest (weightedκ = 0.964) in healthy population. The CG formula, CKD-EPIASR-Scr and CKD-EPI2021-Scr performed better than others in terms of concordance with referenced GFR (rGFR), but had poor ability to distinguish between rGFR < 90 or < 60 mL/min·1.73 m2. This finding was basically consistent across subgroups. Finally, two logistic regression prediction models were constructed based on rGFR < 90 or 60 mL/min·1.73 m2. The area under the curve of receiver operating characteristic values of two prediction models were 0.811 vs 0.846 in training set and 0.812 vs 0.800 in testing set.

Conclusion

The concordance of CKD-EPIASR-Scr and CKD-EPI2021-Scr was the highest in the central China population. The Cockcroft-Gault formula, CKD-EPIASR-Scr, and CKD-EPI2021-Scr more accurately reflected true kidney function, while performed poorly in the staging diagnosis of CKD. The diagnostic prediction models showed the good clinical application performance in identifying mild or moderate kidney injury. These findings lay a solid foundation for future research on renal function assessment and predictive equations.

Continued elevation of creatinine and uric acid in a male athlete: A case report

Whey protein and other protein-fortified supplements are frequently consumed as nutritional supplements to aid in muscle hypertrophy and myogenesis. This case presents a 36-year-old athletic male with elevated creatinine and uric acid levels during routine laboratory evaluation. The patient had no history of kidney disease, diabetes, or hypertension. It was revealed that the patient had been regularly consuming whey protein as a dietary supplement for 2 months. Given the potential association between the elevated creatinine and uric acid levels and the use of whey protein, the patient was advised to discontinue the supplement. The patient then switched to protein-fortified milk to mitigate the possible harmful connection between the dietary intake and the laboratory findings. However, despite the dietary change, the increased levels of creatinine and uric acid persisted. This observation suggests that the elevated levels may be attributed to chronic whey protein consumption along with high-protein dietary consumption.

Impact of Academia-Government Collaboration on Laboratory Medicine Standardization in South Korea: analysis of eight years creatinine proficiency testing experience

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the performance of the Academia-Government Collaboration for Laboratory Medicine Standardization in Korea (KR-STDZN) based on data from KR-STDZN proficiency testing (KR-STDZN-PT) for creatinine over eight years (2015-2022).

METHODS

We used KR-STDZN-PT data of creatinine tests from 2015 to 2022. Acceptance of the participating institutions' test results was assessed by calculating the acceptance performance as absolute bias (absBias%), total coefficient of variance (tCV%), and total error (TE%) for each sample using six measurements from each institution and true values of each reference material. The test result was considered acceptable when absBias%, tCV%, and TE% were <5.10, <3.20, and <11.40 %, respectively. The proportion of acceptable institutions among all participating institutions in each round was defined as the acceptance rate. Improvements in absBias%, tCV%, and TE% were analyzed using creatinine concentration ranges in samples.

RESULTS

The number of participating institutions increased from 2015 to 2017 but remained consistent since 2018. The acceptance rates for absBias% and TE% increased from 52.2 and 77.6 %, in 2015 and to 90.7 and 96.3 %, in 2022, respectively. The acceptance rate for tCV% remained in the 90 % range for eight years. When creatinine <3 mg/dL, mean absBias%, and mean TE% improved significantly in 2021-2022 compared to 2015-2016 (p<0.05). When creatinine >3 mg/dL, acceptance performance did not improve. Mean tCV% remained consistent annually regardless of creatinine concentration. No significant variations in test methods were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

The collaboration between academia and the government improved creatinine testing quality. Nevertheless, KR-STDZN must be expanded and refined.

Application of the European Kidney Function Consortium Equation to Estimate Glomerular Filtration Rate: A Comparison Study of the CKiD and CKD-EPI Equations Using the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES 2008-2021)

Background and Objectives: The European Kidney Function Consortium (EKFC) equation has been newly proposed for estimating glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) across the spectrum of age. We compared the EKFC equation with the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) equations in a large-scale Korean population. Materials and Methods: Using the representative Korean health examination data, the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES 2008-2021), the records of 91,928 subjects (including 9917 children) were analyzed. We compared the EKFC equation with CKiD, CKD-EPI 2009, and CKD-EPI 2021 equations and investigated their agreement across GFR categories. Results: In the total population, the CKD-EPI 2021 equation yielded the highest eGFR value, followed by the CKD-EPI 2009 and EKFC equations. In children, the distribution of eGFR differed significantly between the EKFC and CKiD equations (p < 0.001), with a wider range of eGFR values found with the CKiD equation. Each equation showed weak or moderate agreement on the frequency of the GFR category (κ = 0.54 between EKFC and CKD-EPI 2021; κ = 0.77 between EKFC and CKD-EPI 2009). The eGFR values found by the EKFC equation showed high or very high correlations with those by the CKiD, CKD-EPI 2009, and CKD-EPI 2021 equations (r = 0.85, 0.97, and 0.97, respectively). As eGFR values increased, bigger differences were observed between equations. Conclusions: This large-scale study demonstrates that the EKFC equation would be applicable across the entire age spectrum in Asian populations. It also underscores that national kidney health would be highly affected by an eGFR equation being implemented. Additional investigation and more caution would be warranted for the transition of eGFR equations.

Evaluation of risk stratification for acute kidney injury: a comparative analysis of EKFC, 2009 and 2021 CKD-EPI glomerular filtration estimating equations

BACKGROUND

The adoption of the 2021 CKD-EPIcr equation for glomerular filtration rate (GFR) estimation provided a race-free eGFR calculation. However, the discriminative performance for AKI risk has been rarely validated. We aimed to evaluate the differences in acute kidney injury (AKI) prediction or reclassification power according to the three eGFR equations.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective observational study within a tertiary hospital from 2011 to 2021. Acute kidney injury was defined according to KDIGO serum creatinine criteria. Glomerular filtration rate estimates were calculated by three GFR estimating equations: 2009 and 2021 CKD-EPIcr, and EKFC. In three equations, AKI prediction performance was evaluated with area under receiver operator curves (AUROC) and reclassification power was evaluated with net reclassification improvement analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 187,139 individuals, including 27,447 (14.7%) AKI and 159,692 (85.3%) controls, were enrolled. In the multivariable regression prediction model, the 2009 CKD-EPIcr model (continuous eGFR model 2, 0.7583 [0.755-0.7617]) showed superior performance in AKI prediction to the 2021 CKD-EPIcr (0.7564 [0.7531-0.7597], < 0.001) or EKFC model in AUROC (0.7577 [0.7543-0.761], < 0.001). Moreover, in reclassification of AKI, the 2021 CKD-EPIcr and EKFC models showed a worse classification performance than the 2009 CKD-EPIcr model. (- 7.24 [- 8.21-- 6.21], - 2.38 [- 2.72-- 1.97]).

CONCLUSION

Regarding AKI risk stratification, the 2009 CKD-EPIcr equation showed better discriminative performance compared to the 2021 CKD-EPIcr equation in the study population.

Comparative Analysis of Seven Equations for Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate and Their Impact on Chronic Kidney Disease Categorization in Korean Patients at Local Clinics and Hospitals

(1) Background: Accurate estimation of the glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) is essential for the early detection of chronic kidney disease (CKD), targeted interventions, and ongoing monitoring. Although various equations for calculating eGFR exist, comparative studies on eGFR levels and the impact of these equations on CKD prevalence are limited in the Korean population. (2) Methods: We compared eGFR levels calculated using seven equations and investigated the prevalence of CKD through a retrospective analysis of the data from Korean adult patients who visited local clinics and hospitals and underwent simultaneous serum creatinine (Cr) and cystatin C (Cys-C) measurements. The equations analyzed were: 2006 MDRD, 2009 CKD-EPI Cr, 2012 CKD-EPI Cys-C, 2012 CKD-EPI Cr & Cys-C, 2021 CKD-EPI Cr, 2021 CKD-EPI Cr & Cys-C, and 2021 EKFC. (3) Results: This study included 6688 Korean patients (3736 men and 2952 women; median age: 61.4; IQR: 47.2-73.4). Among the equations, the median eGFR levels were the highest when using the 2021 CKD-EPI Cr & Cys-C equation (85.1 mL/min/1.73 m2) and the lowest when using the 2006 MDRD equation (73.4 mL/min/1.73 m2). The highest prevalence of decreased eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 (equivalent to or worse than G3a CKD) was noted with the 2012 CKD-EPI Cys-C equation (32.4%), while the lowest was with the 2021 CKD-EPI Cr equation (22.9%), resulting in a maximum prevalence difference of 9.5%. (4) Conclusions: The prevalence of CKD varies based on the eGFR equation used and the patient's age. Equations that include Cys-C may identify a larger number of patients with decreased kidney function.

Exploring Renal Function Assessment: Creatinine, Cystatin C, and Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate Focused on the European Kidney Function Consortium Equation

Serum creatinine and serum cystatin C are the most widely used renal biomarkers for calculating the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), which is used to estimate the severity of kidney damage. In this review, we present the basic characteristics of these biomarkers, their advantages and disadvantages, some basic history, and current laboratory measurement practices with state-of-the-art methodology. Their clinical utility is described in terms of normal reference intervals, graphically presented with age-dependent reference intervals, and their use in eGFR equations.

Performance of the European Kidney Function Consortium (EKFC) creatinine-based equation in United States cohorts

Estimating glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is important in daily practice to assess kidney function and adapting the best clinical care of patients with and without chronic kidney disease. The new creatinine-based European Kidney Function Consortium (EKFC) equation is used to estimate GFR. This equation was developed and validated mainly in European individuals and based on a rescaled creatinine, with the rescaling factor (Q-value) defined as the median normal value of serum creatinine in a given population. The validation was limited in Non-Black Americans and absent in Black Americans. Here, our cross-sectional analysis included 12,854 participants from nine studies encompassing large numbers of both non-Black and Black Americans with measured GFR by clearance of an exogenous marker (reference method), serum creatinine, age, sex, and self-reported race available. Two strategies were considered with population-specific Q-values in Black and non-Black men and women (EKFCPS) or a race-free Q-value (EKFCRF). In the whole population, only the EKFCPS equation showed no statistical median bias (0.14, 95% confidence interval [-0.07; 0.35] mL/min/1.73m2), and the bias for the EKFCRF (0.74, [0.51; 0.94] mL/min/1.73m2) was closer to zero than that for the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI2021) equation (1.22, [0.99; 1.47]) mL/min/1.73m2]. The percentage of estimated GFR within 30% of measured GFR was similar for CKD-EPI2021 (79.2% [78.5%; 79.9%]) and EKFCRF (80.1% [79.4%; 80.7%]), but improved for the EKFCPS equation (81.1% [80.5%; 81.8%]). Thus, our EKFC equations can be used to estimate GFR in the United States incorporating either self-reported race or unknown race at the patient's discretion per hospital registration records.

Retaining Race in Chronic Kidney Disease Diagnosis and Treatment

The best overall measure of kidney function is glomerular filtration rate (GFR) as commonly estimated from serum creatinine concentrations (eGFRcr) using formulas that correct for the higher average creatinine concentrations in Blacks. After two decades of use, these formulas have come under scrutiny for estimating GFR differently in Blacks and non-Blacks. Discussions of whether to include race (Black vs. non-Black) in the calculation of eGFRcr fail to acknowledge that the original race-based eGFRcr provided the same CKD treatment recommendations for Blacks and non-Blacks based on directly (exogenously) measured GFR. Nevertheless, the National Kidney Foundation and the American Society of Nephrology Task Force on Reassessing the Inclusion of Race in Diagnosing Kidney Disease removed race in CKD treatment guidelines and pushed for the immediate adoption of a race-free eGFRcr formula by physicians and clinical laboratories. This formula is projected to negate CKD in 5.51 million White and other non-Black adults and reclassify CKD to less severe stages in another 4.59 million non-Blacks, in order to expand treatment eligibility to 434,000 Blacks not previously diagnosed and to 584,000 Blacks previously diagnosed with less severe CKD. This review examines: 1) the validity of the arguments for removing the original race correction, and 2) the performance of the proposed replacement formula. Excluding race in the derivation of eGFRcr changed the statistical bias from +3.7 to -3.6 ml/min/1.73m2 in Blacks and from +0.5 to +3.9 in non-Blacks, i.e., promoting CKD diagnosis in Blacks at the cost of restricting diagnosis in non-Blacks. By doing so, the revised eGFRcr greatly exaggerates the purported racial disparity in CKD burden. Claims that the revised formulas identify heretofore undiagnosed CKD in Blacks are not supported when studies that used kidney failure replacement therapy and mortality are interpreted as proxies for baseline CKD. Alternatively, a race-stratified eGFRcr (i.e., separate equations for Blacks and non-Blacks) would provide the least biased eGFRcr for both Blacks and non-Blacks and the best medical treatment for all patients.