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Hawthorn A, Berzins IK, Dennis MM, Kiupel M, Newton AL, Peters EC, Reyes VA, Work TM. An introduction to lesions and histology of scleractinian corals. Vet Pathol 2023; 60:529-546. [PMID: 37519147 DOI: 10.1177/03009858231189289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Stony corals (Scleractinia) are in the Phylum Cnidaria (cnidae referring to various types of stinging cells). They may be solitary or colonial, but all secrete an external, supporting aragonite skeleton. Large, colonial members of this phylum are responsible for the accretion of coral reefs in tropical and subtropical waters that form the foundations of the most biodiverse marine ecosystems. Coral reefs worldwide, but particularly in the Caribbean, are experiencing unprecedented levels of disease, resulting in reef degradation. Most coral diseases remain poorly described and lack clear case definitions, while the etiologies and pathogenesis are even more elusive. This introductory guide is focused on reef-building corals and describes basic gross and microscopic lesions in these corals in order to serve as an invitation to other veterinary pathologists to play a critical role in defining and advancing the field of coral pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aine Hawthorn
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
- U.S. Geological Survey, Seattle, WA
| | - Ilze K Berzins
- University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
- One Water, One Health, LLC, Golden Valley, MN
| | | | | | - Alisa L Newton
- ZooQuatic Laboratory, LLC, Baltimore, MD
- OCEARCH, Park City, UT
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2
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Ricci F, Leggat W, Page CE, Ainsworth TD. Coral growth anomalies, neoplasms, and tumors in the Anthropocene. Trends Microbiol 2022; 30:1160-1173. [PMID: 35718641 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2022.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
One of the most widespread coral diseases linked to anthropogenic activities and recorded on reefs worldwide is characterized by anomalous growth formations in stony corals, referred to as coral growth anomalies (GAs). The biological functions of GA tissue include limited reproduction, reduced access to resources, and weakened ability to defend against predators. Transcriptomic analyses have revealed that, in some cases, disease progression can involve host genes related to oncogenesis, suggesting that the GA tissues may be malignant neoplasms such as those developed by vertebrates. The number of studies reporting the presence of GAs in common reef-forming species highlights the urgency of a thorough understanding of the pathology and causative factors of this disease and its parallels to higher organism malignant tissue growth. Here, we review the current state of knowledge on the etiology and holobiont features of GAs in reef-building corals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Ricci
- University of New South Wales, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Kensington 2033, NSW, Australia.
| | - William Leggat
- University of Newcastle, School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Callaghan 2309, NSW, Australia
| | - Charlotte E Page
- University of New South Wales, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Kensington 2033, NSW, Australia
| | - Tracy D Ainsworth
- University of New South Wales, School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Kensington 2033, NSW, Australia
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Four-Year Field Survey of Black Band Disease and Skeletal Growth Anomalies in Encrusting Montipora spp. Corals around Sesoko Island, Okinawa. DIVERSITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/d14010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The Indo-Pacific zooxanthellate scleractinian coral genus Montipora is the host of many coral diseases. Among these are cyanobacterial Black Band Disease (BBD) and Skeletal Growth Anomalies (GAs), but in general data on both diseases are lacking from many regions of the Indo-Pacific, including from Okinawa, southern Japan. In this study, we collected annual prevalence data of Black Band Disease (BBD) and Skeletal Growth Anomalies (GAs) affecting the encrusting form of genus Montipora within the shallow reefs of the subtropical Sesoko Island (off the central west coast of Okinawajima Island) from summer to autumn for four years (2017 to 2020). In 2020 Montipora percent coverage and colony count were also assessed. Generalized Linear Models (GLM) were used to understand the spatial and temporal variation of both BBD and GAs in the nearshore (NE) and reef edge (RE) sites, which revealed higher probability of BBD occurrence in RE sites. BBD prevalence was significantly higher in 2017 in some sites than all other years with site S12 having significant higher probability during all four surveyed years. In terms of GAs, certain sites in 2020 had higher probability of occurrence than during the other years. While the general trend of GAs increased from 2017 to 2020, it was observed to be non-fatal to colonies. In both diseases, the interaction between sites and years was significant. We also observed certain BBD-infected colonies escaping complete mortality. BBD progression rates were monitored in 2020 at site S4, and progression was related to seawater temperatures and was suppressed during periods of heavy rain and large strong typhoons. Our results suggest that higher BBD progression rates are linked with high sea water temperatures (SST > bleaching threshold SST) and higher light levels (>1400 µmol m−2 s−1), indicating the need for further controlled laboratory experiments. The current research will help form the basis for continued future research into these diseases and their causes in Okinawa and the Indo-Pacific Ocean.
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Rich LP, Arnot C, Dennis MM. Pathology of growth anomalies in massive Caribbean corals of the family Faviidae. Vet Pathol 2021; 58:1119-1130. [PMID: 34114529 DOI: 10.1177/03009858211020675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Growth anomalies (GAs) are a morphologically diverse and poorly understood group of lesions affecting corals. The aim of this study was to describe the prevalence and morphology of GAs affecting the faviid corals Diploria labyrinthiformis, Pseudodiploria strigosa, Psudodiploria clivosa, and Colpophyillia natans on St. Kitts. Three gross morphological variants of GAs (exophytic, nodular, and ruminate) were equally prevalent, together affecting 7.8% of corals surveyed across 5 reefs. Prevalence varied by reef and coral species, being highest in C. natans (35.7%). Median colony diameter was larger in corals with GAs relative to those without (Mann-Whitney U test, P < .001). Histopathological examination of exophytic GAs consistently showed corallite and polyp gigantism (n = 7), characterized by polyp enlargement and retained microanatomical structures. In contrast, nodular GAs (n = 9) were consistently hyperplasia of the basal body wall with skeletal dystrophy, composed of micronodular skeletal deposits with abundant hyaline lamellae, bordered by calicoblastic epithelial hyperplasia, interspersed with distorted gastrovascular canals and islands of mesoglea. Endolithic organisms, particularly fungi and algae, were common among GA and apparently healthy biopsies. While pathogenesis of these lesions remains uncertain, a neoplastic basis for GAs on Caribbean faviids could not be established using diagnostic criteria conventionally applied to tumors of vertebrate taxa, in line with other recent observations of coral GAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Pierre Rich
- 96722University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA.,Ross University, St. Kitts, West Indies
| | | | - Michelle M Dennis
- Ross University, St. Kitts, West Indies.,4292University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
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Wong YH, Zhang Y, Lun JCY, Qiu JW. A proteomic analysis of skeletal tissue anomaly in the brain coral Platygyra carnosa. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2021; 164:111982. [PMID: 33517085 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2021.111982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Coral skeletal growth anomaly (GA) is a common coral disease. It has been considered as a pathological condition comparable to abnormal tissue growth in mammals, but little is known about the molecular changes underlying coral GA. To investigate the molecular pathology of GA, we compared the proteome between normal and GA-affected tissues of the brain coral Platygyra carnosa using iTRAQ-labeling and LC-MS/MS, which quantified 818 proteins and identified 117 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs). GO analyses revealed DEPs that might be related to GA included "translational elongation", "proteasome core complex", "amine metabolic processes" and "lysosome". Several proteins implicated in calcification and fluorescence were differentially expressed at both protein and mRNA level. Protein-protein interaction network suggested possible involvement of TNF receptor signaling in GA. Overall, our results provided novel insights into the molecular pathology of coral GA, which will pave the way for determination of the causative agent(s) of this coral disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Him Wong
- Institute for Advance Study, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresource and Eco-environmental Science, Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Marine Algal Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China.
| | - Janice C Y Lun
- Agriculture, Fishery and Conservation Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jian-Wen Qiu
- Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Guangzhou), Guangzhou, China; Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China; HKBU Institute of Research and Continuing Education, Shenzhen, China.
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Carella F, Miele C, De Vico G. Nodular-like growth and axial thickening in gorgonians are a defensive response to endolithic cyanobacteria, involving amyloid deposition. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2020; 138:155-169. [PMID: 32162614 DOI: 10.3354/dao03451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
An accurate approach to coral disease study is critical for understanding the global decline of coral populations. Such an approach should involve the proper use of medical concepts and terminology to avoid confusion and promote clarity in the coral disease literature. Inflammatory and neoplastic disorders have been frequently confused in corals. They are both reported as 'growth anomalies' because of their possible gross similarity, but in fact they are very different types of lesions and pathologic phenomena. In this work, we assessed the distribution and prevalence of growth anomalies, externally visible as nodular-like lesions, in the soft corals Eunicella cavolinii and E. singularis in 2008-2009 in 3 different areas along the Campanian coastline of Italy. Histopathology revealed them as chronic inflammatory lesions, resembling chronic inflammatory lesions of vertebrates, encapsulating an unidentified pathogen. Congo red and Masson Fontana histochemistry highlighted an amoebocyte infiltration with the presence of new apposition of melanin coupled with amyloid sheets intended as part of the defensive response, as reported in other invertebrates. A parallel molecular analysis of 16S rRNA of the lesions suggested that the causative agent is an endolithic cyanobacterium belonging to the order Nostocales. This is the first study assessing the presence of amyloid fibrils in corals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Carella
- Laboratory of Marine Pathology, Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, 80134 Naples, Italy
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Rosenberg Y, Doniger T, Levy O. Sustainability of coral reefs are affected by ecological light pollution in the Gulf of Aqaba/Eilat. Commun Biol 2019; 2:289. [PMID: 31396569 PMCID: PMC6683144 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-019-0548-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
As human populations grow and lighting technologies improve, artificial light gradually alters natural cycles of light and dark that have been consistent over long periods of geological and evolutionary time. While considerable ecological implications of artificial light have been identified in both terrestrial and aquatic habitats, knowledge about the physiological and molecular effects of light pollution is vague. To determine if ecological light pollution (ELP) impacts coral biological processes, we characterized the transcriptome of the coral Acropora eurystoma under two different light regimes: control conditions and treatment with light at night. Here we show that corals exposed to ELP have approximately 25 times more differentially expressed genes that regulate cell cycle, cell proliferation, cell growth, protein synthesis and display changes in photo physiology. The finding of this work confirms that ELP acts as a chronic disturbance that may impact the future of coral reefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Rosenberg
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, 52900 Israel
| | - Tirza Doniger
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, 52900 Israel
| | - Oren Levy
- Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, 52900 Israel
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Neave MJ, Apprill A, Aeby G, Miyake S, Voolstra CR. Microbial Communities of Red Sea Coral Reefs. CORAL REEFS OF THE RED SEA 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-05802-9_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Palmer CV, Baird AH. Coral tumor-like growth anomalies induce an immune response and reduce fecundity. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2018; 130:77-81. [PMID: 30154275 DOI: 10.3354/dao03258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Coral growth anomalies (GAs) are chronic diseases that adversely affect organism health and fitness. We investigated immunity and fecundity within and among GA-affected and visually healthy control colonies of the reef-building coral Acropora hyacinthus. Compared to controls, GAs had higher activity of the key immunity enzyme phenoloxidase (PO), suggesting a localised immune response within the GA. Both GAs and healthy tissue of GA-affected colonies had significantly greater total potential PO (tpPO)-PO activity inclusive of the activated latent PO, prophenoloxidase-than control colonies. Higher tpPO activity in GA-affected corals suggests elevated constitutive immunity compared to visually healthy controls. Additionally, fewer GA-affected colonies produced gametes, fewer polyps had oocytes (p < 0.001) and the number of oocytes per polyp was lower. Therefore, GAs in A. hyacinthus might induce, or represent a shift in resource investment towards immunity and away from reproduction. While the effect on population growth is likely to be small, reduced fecundity in GA-affected colonies does suggest a selective pressure against GAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline V Palmer
- School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD 4811, Australia
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Zhang Y, Sun J, Mu H, Lun JCY, Qiu JW. Molecular pathology of skeletal growth anomalies in the brain coral Platygyra carnosa: A meta-transcriptomic analysis. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2017; 124:660-667. [PMID: 28363426 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2017.03.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2016] [Revised: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Coral skeletal growth anomaly (GA) is a common coral disease. Although extensive ecological characterizations of coral GA have been performed, the molecular pathology of this disease remains largely unknown. We compared the meta-transcriptome of normal and GA-affected polyps of Platygyra carnosa using RNA-Seq. Approximately 50 million sequences were generated from four pairs of normal and GA-affected tissue samples. There were 109 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in P. carnosa and 31 DEGs in the coral symbiont Symbiodinium sp. These differentially expressed host genes were enriched in GO terms related to osteogenesis and oncogenesis. There were several differentially expressed immune genes, indicating the presence of both bacteria and viruses in GA-affected tissues. The differentially expressed Symbiodinium genes were enriched in reproduction, nitrogen metabolism and pigment formation, indicating that GA affects the physiology of the symbiont. Our results have provided new insights into the molecular pathology of coral GA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresource and Eco-environmental Science, Guangdong Engineering Research Center for Marine Algal Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences and Oceanography, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jin Sun
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China; Division of Life Sciences, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Huawei Mu
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China
| | - Janice C Y Lun
- Agriculture, Fisheries and Conservation Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Jian-Wen Qiu
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong, China.
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Hussain A, De K, Thomas L, Nagesh R, Mote S, Ingole B. Prevalence of skeletal tissue growth anomalies in a scleractinian coral: Turbinaria mesenterina of Malvan Marine Sanctuary, eastern Arabian Sea. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2016; 121:79-83. [PMID: 27596863 DOI: 10.3354/dao03038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Skeletal tissue growth anomalies (STAs) of corals are capable of causing considerable degradation of reef health. This study is the first report of growth anomalies in Turbinaria corals and the first descriptive study of Indian corals. T. mesenterina colonies at 2 sites were affected by small, round to irregularly shaped growth anomalies. Prevalence of STAs was observed to be higher in T. mesenterina colonies with larger diameters. Prevalence of STAs on T. mesenterina was 71% at Site 1 and 40% at Site 2. Affected colonies were seen to be undergoing tissue damage and infiltration by filamentous algae. We describe the gross morphology of growth anomalies which can act as baseline data for growth anomalies from this region, but further investigation is needed to understand the form and etiology of this coral disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Afreen Hussain
- CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa 403004, India
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Smith D, Leary P, Bendall M, Flach E, Jones R, Sweet M. A novel investigation of a blister-like syndrome in aquarium Echinopora lamellosa. PLoS One 2014; 9:e97018. [PMID: 24827734 PMCID: PMC4020768 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates potential causes of a novel blister-like syndrome in the plating coral Echinopora lamellosa. Visual inspections of this novel coral syndrome showed no obvious signs of macroparasites and the blisters themselves manifested as fluid-filled sacs on the surface of the coral, which rose from the coenosarc between the coral polyps. Histological analysis of the blisters showed that there was no associated necrosis with the epidermal or gastrodermal tissues. The only difference between blistered areas and apparently healthy tissues was the presence of proliferated growth (possible mucosal cell hyperplasia) directly at the blister interface (area between where the edge of the blister joined apparently healthy tissue). No bacterial aggregates were identified in any histological samples, nor any sign of tissue necrosis identified. We conclude, that the blister formations are not apparently caused by a specific microbial infection, but instead may be the result of irritation following growth anomalies of the epidermis. However, future work should be conducted to search for other potential casual agents, including viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Smith
- School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear, United Kingdom; School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast, County Antrim, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Leary
- School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Bendall
- School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear, United Kingdom
| | - Edmund Flach
- Zoological Society of London, London, Greater London, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel Jones
- Zoological Society of London, London, Greater London, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Sweet
- School of Biology, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear, United Kingdom; Biological Sciences Research Group, University of Derby, Derby, Derbyshire, United Kingdom
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Spies NP, Takabayashi M. Expression of galaxin and oncogene homologs in growth anomaly in the coral Montipora capitata. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2013; 104:249-256. [PMID: 23759562 DOI: 10.3354/dao02603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Growth anomaly (GA) is a coral disease characterized by enlarged skeletal lesions. Although negative effects of GA on several of coral's biological functions have been determined, the etiology and molecular pathology of this disease is very poorly understood. We studied the expression of 5 genes suspected to play a role in pathological development of GA in the endemic Hawaiian coral Montipora capitata, which is particularly susceptible to this disease. Transcript abundances of the 5 target genes in healthy tissue, GA-affected tissue, and unaffected tissue (apparently healthy tissue adjacent to GA) relative to 3 internal control genes (actin, NADH, and rpS3) were compared using quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR. Galaxin, which codes for a protein suspected to be involved in calcification and thus hypothesized to be differentially expressed in GA, was up-regulated in unaffected tissue but remained at baseline levels in GA tissue. The gene expressions of murine double minute 2 (MDM2) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) remained unchanged in GA tissue. The expression of tyrosine protein kinase (TPK) and βγ-crystallin (BGC) were both down-regulated. These expression patterns were all inconsistent with the expression patterns of homologous genes in neoplastic diseases featuring similar morphological symptoms in humans. These expression data therefore suggest that the calcification mechanism is likely not enhanced in coral GA and that coral GA is not a malignant neoplasia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narrissa P Spies
- Tropical Conservation Biology & Environmental Science Department, University of Hawaii, Hilo, HI 96720, USA.
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Work TM, Russell R, Aeby GS. Tissue loss (white syndrome) in the coral Montipora capitata is a dynamic disease with multiple host responses and potential causes. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:4334-41. [PMID: 22951746 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2012.1827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Tissue loss diseases or white syndromes (WS) are some of the most important coral diseases because they result in significant colony mortality and morbidity, threatening dominant Acroporidae in the Caribbean and Pacific. The causes of WS remain elusive in part because few have examined affected corals at the cellular level. We studied the cellular changes associated with WS over time in a dominant Hawaiian coral, Montipora capitata, and showed that: (i) WS has rapidly progressing (acute) phases mainly associated with ciliates or slowly progressing (chronic) phases mainly associated with helminths or chimeric parasites; (ii) these phases interchanged and waxed and waned; (iii) WS could be a systemic disease associated with chimeric parasitism or a localized disease associated with helminths or ciliates; (iv) corals responded to ciliates mainly with necrosis and to helminths or chimeric parasites with wound repair; (v) mixed infections were uncommon; and (vi) other than cyanobacteria, prokaryotes associated with cell death were not seen. Recognizing potential agents associated with disease at the cellular level and the host response to those agents offers a logical deductive rationale to further explore the role of such agents in the pathogenesis of WS in M. capitata and helps explain manifestation of gross lesions. This approach has broad applicability to the study of the pathogenesis of coral diseases in the field and under experimental settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry M Work
- US Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Honolulu Field Station, Honolulu, HI 96850, USA.
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Weil E, Irikawa A, Casareto B, Suzuki Y. Extended geographic distribution of several Indo-Pacific coral reef diseases. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2012; 98:163-170. [PMID: 22436464 DOI: 10.3354/dao02433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Other than coral bleaching, few coral diseases or diseases of other reef organisms have been reported from Japan. This is the first report of lesions similar to Porites ulcerative white spots (PUWS), brown band disease (BrB), pigmentation response (PR), and crustose coralline white syndrome (CCWS) for this region. To assess the health status and disease prevalence, qualitative and quantitative surveys (3 belt transects of 100 m² each on each reef) were performed in March and September 2010 on 2 reefs of the Ginowan-Ooyama reef complex off Okinawa, and 2 protected reefs off Zamani Island, in the Kerama Islands 40 km west of Okinawa. Overall, mean (±SD) disease prevalence was higher in Ginowan-Ooyama (9.7 ± 7.9%) compared to Zamami (3.6 ± 4.6%). Porites lutea was most affected by PUWS at Ooyama (23.1 ± 10.4 vs. 4.5 ± 5.2%). White syndrome (WS) mostly affected Acropora cytherea (12. 5 ± 18.0%) in Zamami and Oxipora lacera (10.2 ± 10%) in Ooyama. Growth anomalies (GA) and BrB were only observed on A. cytherea (8.3 ± 6.2%) and A. nobilis (0.8%) at Zamami. Black band disease affected Pachyseris speciosa (6.0 ± 4.6%) in Ooyama only. Pigmentation responses (PR) were common in massive Porites in both localities (2.6 ± 1.9 and 5.6 ± 2.3% respectively). Crustose coralline white syndrome (CCWS) was observed in both localities. These results significantly expand the geographic distribution of PUWS, BrB, PR and CCWS in the Indo-Pacific, indicating that the northernmost coral reefs in the western Pacific are susceptible to a larger number of coral diseases than previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Weil
- Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Call Box 9000, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00681, USA.
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Yasuda N, Nakano Y, Yamashiro H, Hidaka M. Skeletal structure and progression of growth anomalies in Porites australiensis in Okinawa, Japan. DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2012; 97:237-247. [PMID: 22422094 DOI: 10.3354/dao02408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Growth anomalies (GAs), one of the diseases recently reported for scleractinian corals, are characterized by an abnormal skeletal structure and reduced zooxanthella density. The pathological characteristics of GAs were studied in colonies of Porites australiensis on a reef in Kayo, Okinawa, Japan. Corallites in the GA region lost the skeletal architecture characteristic of P. australiensis, and polyp density had decreased in the GAs due to enlargement of both calices and the coenosteum. The gross productivity of isolated GA samples was lower than in healthy samples and decreased to almost 0 within 11 d after isolation. However, when GA samples were brought into contact with healthy-looking samples from the same colony, they fused and both the GA and healthy regions grew. Healthy samples fused with GA samples grew more slowly than those fused with healthy samples. For in situ GAs surrounded by healthy tissue, tissue death usually started at the center of the GA, probably due to a deficiency in the translocated energy supply from the surrounding tissue. The total area of the GA region and the dead area increased at a rate of 5.3 ± 2.9 cm2 yr-1. These results suggest that GA regions are maintained by energy supplies from surrounding healthy tissues and that GAs may have a negative impact on host corals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoko Yasuda
- Marine and Environmental Sciences, Graduate School of Engineering and Science, and 4Department of Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science, Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa 903-0213, Japan
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Burns JHR, Takabayashi M. Histopathology of growth anomaly affecting the coral, Montipora capitata: implications on biological functions and population viability. PLoS One 2011; 6:e28854. [PMID: 22205976 PMCID: PMC3242754 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0028854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2011] [Accepted: 11/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth anomalies (GAs) affect the coral, Montipora capitata, at Wai'ōpae, southeast Hawai'i Island. Our histopathological analysis of this disease revealed that the GA tissue undergoes changes which compromise anatomical machinery for biological functions such as defense, feeding, digestion, and reproduction. GA tissue exhibited significant reductions in density of ova (66.1–93.7%), symbiotic dinoflagellates (38.8–67.5%), mesenterial filaments (11.2–29.0%), and nematocytes (28.8–46.0%). Hyperplasia of the basal body wall but no abnormal levels of necrosis and algal or fungal invasion was found in GA tissue. Skeletal density along the basal body wall was significantly reduced in GAs compared to healthy or unaffected sections. The reductions in density of the above histological features in GA tissue were collated with disease severity data to quantify the impact of this disease at the colony and population level. Resulting calculations showed this disease reduces the fecundity of M. capitata colonies at Wai'ōpae by 0.7–49.6%, depending on GA severity, and the overall population fecundity by 2.41±0.29%. In sum, GA in this M. capitata population reduces the coral's critical biological functions and increases susceptibility to erosion, clearly defining itself as a disease and an ecological threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- John H R Burns
- Marine Science Department, Tropical Conservation Biology and Environmental Science, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, Hilo, Hawai'i, United States of America.
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Irikawa A, Casareto BE, Suzuki Y, Agostini S, Hidaka M, van Woesik R. Growth anomalies on Acropora cytherea corals. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2011; 62:1702-1707. [PMID: 21704344 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2010] [Revised: 05/24/2011] [Accepted: 05/30/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This ten-year study examined the morphological, physiological, and ecological characteristics of coral growth anomalies on Acropora cytherea on Amuro Island, Okinawa, Japan. The objectives of the study were to assess whether the growth anomalies, identified as diffuse disruptions on the skeleton: (i) were more prevalent on large colonies than on small colonies, (ii) were more common near the center of the colonies than peripherally, (iii) affected colony growth and mortality, and (iv) affected coral-colony fecundity and photosynthetic capacity. We hypothesized that the growth anomalies were signs of the onset of aging. The growth anomalies were more prevalent on colonies>2 m diameter, and were concentrated near the central (older) portions of the colonies. The growth anomalies were also associated with reduced productivity and dysfunctional gametogenesis. Still, the growth anomalies did not appear to affect colony survival. The contact experiments showed that the growth anomalies were not contagious, and were most likely a sign of aging that was exacerbated by thermal stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiyuki Irikawa
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan.
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Aeby GS, Williams GJ, Franklin EC, Kenyon J, Cox EF, Coles S, Work TM. Patterns of coral disease across the Hawaiian archipelago: relating disease to environment. PLoS One 2011; 6:e20370. [PMID: 21655248 PMCID: PMC3105043 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Accepted: 05/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In Hawaii, coral reefs occur across a gradient of biological (host abundance), climatic (sea surface temperature anomalies) and anthropogenic conditions from the human-impacted reefs of the main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) to the pristine reefs of the northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). Coral disease surveys were conducted at 142 sites from across the Archipelago and disease patterns examined. Twelve diseases were recorded from three coral genera (Porites, Montipora, Acropora) with Porites having the highest prevalence. Porites growth anomalies (PorGAs) were significantly more prevalent within and indicative of reefs in the MHI and Porites trematodiasis (PorTrm) was significantly more prevalent within and indicative of reefs in the NWHI. Porites tissue loss syndrome (PorTLS) was also important in driving regional differences but that relationship was less clear. These results highlight the importance of understanding disease ecology when interpreting patterns of disease occurrence. PorTrm is caused by a parasitic flatworm that utilizes multiple hosts during its life cycle (fish, mollusk and coral). All three hosts must be present for the disease to occur and higher host abundance leads to higher disease prevalence. Thus, a high prevalence of PorTrm on Hawaiian reefs would be an indicator of a healthy coral reef ecosystem. In contrast, the high occurrence of PorGAs within the MHI suggests that PorGAs are related, directly or indirectly, to some environmental co-factor associated with increased human population sizes. Focusing on the three indicator diseases (PorGAs, PorTrm, PorTLS) we used statistical modeling to examine the underlying associations between disease prevalence and 14 different predictor variables (biotic and abiotic). All three diseases showed positive associations with host abundance and negative associations with thermal stress. The association with human population density differed among disease states with PorGAs showing a positive and PorTrm showing a negative association, but no significant explanatory power was offered for PorTLS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greta S. Aeby
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii, Kaneohe, Hawai'i, United States of America
- * E-mail: (GSA); (GJW)
| | - Gareth J. Williams
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
- Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (GSA); (GJW)
| | - Erik C. Franklin
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, University of Hawaii, Kaneohe, Hawai'i, United States of America
| | - Jean Kenyon
- Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, University of Hawai'i, and NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, Honolulu, Hawai'i, United States of America
| | - Evelyn F. Cox
- University of Hawai'i — West Oahu, Pearl City, Hawai'i, United States of America
- Hawai'i Institute of Marine Biology, Kane'ohe, Hawai'i, United States of America
| | - Steve Coles
- Bishop Museum, Honolulu, Hawai'i, United States of America
| | - Thierry M. Work
- U. S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Honolulu Field Station, Honolulu, Hawai'i, United States of America
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Williams GJ, Knapp IS, Aeby GS, Davy SK. Spatial and temporal patterns of scleractinian coral, soft coral, and zoanthid disease on a remote, near-pristine coral reef (Palmyra Atoll, central Pacific). DISEASES OF AQUATIC ORGANISMS 2011; 94:89-100. [PMID: 21648237 DOI: 10.3354/dao02323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for accurate baselines of coral disease prevalence across our oceans in order for sudden or unnatural changes to be recognized. Palmyra Atoll allows us to study disease dynamics under near-pristine, functionally intact conditions. We examined disease prevalence among all known species of scleractinian coral, soft coral and zoanthid (Palythoa) at a variety of coral reef habitats at Palmyra over a 2 yr period. In 2008, overall disease prevalence across the atoll was low (0.33%), but higher on the shallower backreef (0.88%) and reef terrace (0.80%) than on the deeper forereef (0.09%). Scleractinian coral disease prevalence was higher (0.30%) than were soft coral and zoanthid disease (0.03% combined). Growth anomalies (GAs) were the most commonly encountered lesions, with scleractinian species in the genera Astreopora (2.12%), Acropora (1.30%), and Montipora (0.98%) showing the highest prevalence atoll-wide. Discoloration necrosis (DN) was most prevalent in the zoanthid Palythoa tuberculosa (1.18%), although the soft coral Sinulana and Montipora also had a prevalence of 0.44 and 0.01%, respectively. Overall disease prevalence within permanently marked transects increased from 0.65% in 2008 to 0.79% in 2009. Palythoa DN contributed most to this increased prevalence, which coincided with rising temperatures during the 2009 El Niño. GAs on the majority of susceptible genera at Palmyra increased in number over time, and led to tissue death. Host distribution and environmental factors (e.g., temperature) appear to be important for determining spatiotemporal patterns of disease at Palmyra. More sophisticated analyses are required to tease apart the likely inter-correlated proximate drivers of disease occurrence on remote, near-pristine reefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth J Williams
- School of Biological Sciences and Centre for Marine Environmental and Economic Research, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
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Aeby GS, Williams GJ, Franklin EC, Haapkyla J, Harvell CD, Neale S, Page CA, Raymundo L, Vargas-Ángel B, Willis BL, Work TM, Davy SK. Growth anomalies on the coral genera Acropora and Porites are strongly associated with host density and human population size across the Indo-Pacific. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16887. [PMID: 21365011 PMCID: PMC3041824 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2010] [Accepted: 01/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Growth anomalies (GAs) are common, tumor-like diseases that can cause significant morbidity and decreased fecundity in the major Indo-Pacific reef-building coral genera, Acropora and Porites. GAs are unusually tractable for testing hypotheses about drivers of coral disease because of their pan-Pacific distributions, relatively high occurrence, and unambiguous ease of identification. We modeled multiple disease-environment associations that may underlie the prevalence of Acropora growth anomalies (AGA) (n = 304 surveys) and Porites growth anomalies (PGA) (n = 602 surveys) from across the Indo-Pacific. Nine predictor variables were modeled, including coral host abundance, human population size, and sea surface temperature and ultra-violet radiation anomalies. Prevalence of both AGAs and PGAs were strongly host density-dependent. PGAs additionally showed strong positive associations with human population size. Although this association has been widely posited, this is one of the first broad-scale studies unambiguously linking a coral disease with human population size. These results emphasize that individual coral diseases can show relatively distinct patterns of association with environmental predictors, even in similar diseases (growth anomalies) found on different host genera (Acropora vs. Porites). As human densities and environmental degradation increase globally, the prevalence of coral diseases like PGAs could increase accordingly, halted only perhaps by declines in host density below thresholds required for disease establishment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greta S. Aeby
- Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, Kaneohe, Hawaii, United States of America
- * E-mail: (GSA); (GJW)
| | - Gareth J. Williams
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
- Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (GSA); (GJW)
| | - Erik C. Franklin
- Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology, Kaneohe, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Jessica Haapkyla
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - C. Drew Harvell
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephen Neale
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Cathie A. Page
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Laurie Raymundo
- University of Guam Marine Lab, University of Guam (UOG) Station, Mangilao, Guam
| | - Bernardo Vargas-Ángel
- University of Hawaii, Joint Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Research, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Bette L. Willis
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies, and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Thierry M. Work
- U. S. Geological Survey, National Wildlife Health Center, Honolulu Field Station, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Simon K. Davy
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
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Robert J. Comparative study of tumorigenesis and tumor immunity in invertebrates and nonmammalian vertebrates. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2010; 34:915-25. [PMID: 20553753 PMCID: PMC2900388 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2010.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2010] [Revised: 05/19/2010] [Accepted: 05/20/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Despite intense study in mammals, the different roles played by the immune system in detecting (immunosurveillance), controlling and remodeling (immunoediting) neoplasia, and perhaps in metastasis are not fully understood. In this review, I will present evidence of neoplasia and invasive malignancy, as well as tumor immunity in invertebrates and nonmammalian vertebrates. I will also present a comparative and evolutionary view of the complex interactions between neoplasia and the host immune system. Overall, I wish to go beyond the too simplistic dichotomy between invertebrates with innate immunity that are only affected with benign neoplasia and vertebrates with adaptive immunity that are affected by metastatic malignancies or cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Robert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, United States. jacques
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Williams GJ, Work TM, Aeby GS, Knapp IS, Davy SK. Gross and microscopic morphology of lesions in Cnidaria from Palmyra Atoll, Central Pacific. J Invertebr Pathol 2010; 106:165-73. [PMID: 20709072 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2010.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2010] [Revised: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 08/07/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
We conducted gross and microscopic characterizations of lesions in Cnidaria from Palmyra Atoll, Central Pacific. We found growth anomalies (GA) to be the most commonly encountered lesion. Cases of discoloration and tissue loss were rare. GAs had a focal or multi-focal distribution and were predominantly nodular, exophytic, and umbonate. In scleractinians, the majority of GAs manifested as hyperplasia of the basal body wall (52% of cases), with an associated absence or reduction of polyp structure (mesenteries and filaments, actinopharynx and tentacles), and depletion of zooxanthellae in the gastrodermis of the upper body wall. In the soft corals Sinularia sp. and Lobophytum sp., GAs exclusively manifested as prominent hyperplasia of the coenenchyme with an increased density of solenia. In contrast to scleractinians, soft coral GAs displayed an inflammatory and necrotizing component with marked edema of the mesoglea, accompanied by infiltrates of variably-sized granular amoebocytes. Fungi, algae, sponges, and Crustacea were present in some scleractinian GAs, but absent in soft coral GAs. Fragmentation of tissues was a common finding in Acropora acuminata and Montipora cf. dilatata colonies with tissue loss, although no obvious causative agents were seen. Discoloration in the zoanthid, Palythoa tuberculosa, was found to be the result of necrosis, while in Lobophytum sp. discoloration was the result of zooxanthellar depletion (bleaching). Soft corals with discoloration or tissue loss showed a marked inflammatory response, however no obvious causative organisms were seen. Lesions that appeared similar at the gross level were revealed to be distinct by microscopy, emphasizing the importance of histopathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth J Williams
- School of Biological Sciences & Centre for Marine Environmental and Economic Research, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand
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Kaczmarsky L, Richardson LL. Transmission of growth anomalies between Indo-Pacific Porites corals. J Invertebr Pathol 2007; 94:218-21. [PMID: 17223127 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2006.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2006] [Revised: 11/04/2006] [Accepted: 11/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In this study we provide experimental evidence of transmission of growth anomalies (GAs) between corals. Twenty-four aquaria (16 experimental, 8 containing only apparently healthy corals) were set-up on Negros Island, Philippines, to test for direct-contact and waterborne transmission of GAs. Within seven weeks, two of 16 apparently healthy colonies placed in direct contact with colonies having GAs developed multiple GA lesions whose size and number increased over time. One of 16 apparently healthy colonies in experimental aquaria not touching any diseased colony also developed a GA, exhibiting a single lesion that did not increase in size. Apparently healthy colonies (n=24) in aquaria without a diseased colony remained unchanged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longin Kaczmarsky
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA.
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Breitbart M, Bhagooli R, Griffin S, Johnston I, Rohwer F. Microbial communities associated with skeletal tumors on Porites compressa. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2005; 243:431-6. [PMID: 15686846 DOI: 10.1016/j.femsle.2005.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2004] [Revised: 01/03/2005] [Accepted: 01/04/2005] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Coral tumors are atypical skeletal forms found on coral reefs worldwide. Here we present an analysis of the microbial communities associated with skeletal tumors on the coral Porites compressa. Microbial growth rates on both healthy and tumorous P. compressa were decoupled from the surrounding water column. Microbial communities associated with tumorous colonies had a significantly faster growth rate than those associated with healthy P. compressa. The microbial community associated with the tumors contained more culturable Vibrio spp. and could utilize more carbon sources than the microbes associated with healthy colonies. Presence of tumors affected the composition and dynamics of the microbial population associated with the entire colony.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mya Breitbart
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, Life Sciences 301, 5500 Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4614, USA
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