RETROSPECTIVE ANALYSIS OF BLOOD CULTURES AND THEIR ASSOCIATION WITH CLINICAL FINDINGS AND OUTCOME IN GREEN SEA TURTLES (CHELONIA MYDAS) AT A FLORIDA SEA TURTLE REHABILITATION FACILITY, 2017-2020

Septicemia is commonly suspected of sea turtles entering rehabilitation. However, blood culture results of green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) are infrequently reported in the literature. Aerobic blood cultures were performed for intake examinations of 167 green sea turtles undergoing rehabilitation at Brevard Zoo's Sea Turtle Healing Center, Melbourne, Florida, USA from 2017 to 2020. The incidence of positive cultures during intake examinations was 24% (40/167). The most common bacterial isolates identified were Vibrio alginolyticus, Shewanella algae, Achromobacter xylosoxidans, Photobacterium damselae, Sphingomonas paucimobilis, and Vibrio parahaemolyticus. There was a statistically significant association (P < 0.05) between culture status and evidence of external injury. There was no significant association between culture status and Caryospora-like coccidia infection, or fibropapillomatosis. Culture-positive turtles had significantly lower (P < 0.05) total white blood cell, lymphocyte, monocyte, total protein, albumin, and calculated globulin values compared to turtles with negative blood cultures. Significantly more culture-positive turtles died in rehabilitation compared to culture-negative (P = 0.042). Positive blood cultures suggestive of septicemia are commonly found during intake examinations at a Florida sea turtle rehabilitation facility.

Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation

Each year in the United States, thousands of sick, injured, or displaced wild animals are presented to individuals or organizations who have either a federal or state permit that allows them to care for these animals with the goal of releasing them back to the wild. The purpose of this review is to demonstrate the complexity of considerations rehabilitators and veterinarians face while trying to optimize the welfare of wild animals in need of care and rehabilitation. The process of rehabilitation is inherently stressful for wildlife. Maintaining an animal's welfare during the rehabilitation process-from initial contact and tria+ge to the animal's euthanasia, release, or captive placement-requires deliberate, timely and humane decision making. The welfare of wild animals can be improved by preventing human-related causes of admission, providing resources and support for wildlife rehabilitation (almost all rehabilitation in the United States is privately funded and access to veterinary care is often limited); further developing evidence-based wildlife rehabilitation methods and welfare measures, attracting more veterinary professionals to the field, harmonizing regulatory oversight with standards of care, training, and accountability, and increasing public education.

Survival outcomes of rehabilitated riverine turtles following a freshwater diluted bitumen oil spill

Rehabilitation is often used to mitigate adverse effects of oil spills on wildlife. With an increase in production of alternatives to conventional crude oil such as diluted bitumen (dilbit), emergency spill responders and wildlife rehabilitators need information regarding the health and survival of free-ranging vertebrates exposed to dilbit under natural conditions. In 2010, one of the largest freshwater oil spills in the United States occurred in the Kalamazoo River in Michigan, when over 3.2 million liters of spilled dilbit impacted 56 km of riverine habitat. During 2010 and 2011 cleanup efforts, thousands of northern map turtles (Graptemys geographica) were captured from oiled stretches of the river, cleaned, rehabilitated, and released. We conducted extensive mark-recapture surveys in 2010, 2011, and 2018-2021, and used this dataset to evaluate the monthly survival probability of turtles 1-14 months post-spill and 8-11 years post-spill based on whether turtles were temporarily rehabilitated and released, overwintered in captivity and then released, or were released without rehabilitation. We found that rehabilitated or overwintered turtles had a higher probability of survival 1-14 months post-spill than non-rehabilitated turtles; however, 8-11 years post-spill the among-group differences in monthly survival probability had become negligible. Additionally, following the oil spill in 2010, nearly 6% of northern map turtles were recovered dead, died during rehabilitation, or suffered injuries that precluded release back into the wild. Our results demonstrate that exposure to dilbit in free ranging turtles causes direct mortality, while effort spent on the capture and rehabilitation of oiled freshwater turtles is important as it increases monthly survival 1-14 months post-spill.

Species, causes, and outcomes of wildlife rehabilitation in New York State

Wildlife rehabilitation is a publicly popular practice, though not without controversy. State wildlife agencies frequently debate the ecological impact of rehabilitation. By analyzing case records, we can clarify and quantify the causes for rehabilitation, species involved, and treatment outcomes. This data would aid regulatory agencies and rehabilitators in making informed decisions, as well as gaining insight into causes of species mortality. In New York State, the Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC) has licensed rehabilitators since 1980 and annual reporting is required. In this study, we analyzed 58,185 individual wildlife cases that were attended by New York rehabilitators between 2012 and 2014. These encompassed 30,182 (51.9%) birds, 25,447 (43.7%) mammals, 2,421 (4.2%) reptiles, and 75 (0.1%) amphibians. We identified patterns among taxonomic representation, reasons for presentation to a rehabilitation center, and animal disposition. Major causes of presentation were trauma (n = 22,156; 38.1%) and orphaning (n = 21,679; 37.3%), with habitat loss (n = 3,937; 6.8%), infectious disease (n = 1,824; 3.1%), and poisoning or toxin exposure (n = 806; 1.4%) playing lesser roles. The overall release rate for animals receiving care was 50.2% while 45.3% died or were euthanized during the rehabilitation process. A relatively small number (0.3%) were permanently non-releasable and placed in captivity; 4.1% had unknown outcomes. A comparable evaluation in 1989 revealed that wildlife submissions have increased (annual mean 12,583 vs 19,395), and are accompanied by a significant improvement in release (50.2% in the study period vs 44.4% in 1989) (χ²(1) = 90.43, p < 0.0001). In this manuscript, we aim to describe the rehabilitator community in New York State, and present the causes and outcomes for rehabilitation over a three-year period.

Satellite tracking of rehabilitated sea turtles suggests a high rate of short-term survival following release

The rehabilitation of wildlife can contribute directly to the conservation of threatened species by helping to maintain wild populations. This study focused on determining the post-rehabilitation survival and spatial ecology of sea turtles and on comparing the movements of individuals with flipper amputations (amputees) to non-amputee animals. Our aims were to assess whether rehabilitated sea turtles survive after release, to compare and contrast the movement characteristics of the different species of sea turtles we tracked, and to examine whether amputees and non-amputees within species behaved similarly post-release. Twenty-six rehabilitated sea turtles from four species, including hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata (n = 12), loggerhead Caretta caretta (n = 11), green Chelonia mydas (n = 2), and olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea (n = 1) sea turtles from the United Arab Emirates were fitted with satellite tags before release. Rehabilitation times ranged from 89 to 817 days (mean 353 ± 237 days). Post-release movements and survival were monitored for 8 to 387 days (mean 155 ± 95 days) through satellite tracking. Tag data suggested that three tracked sea turtles died within four days of release, one after 27 days, and one after 192 days from what are thought to be anthropogenic factors unrelated to their pre-rehabilitation ailments. We then compared habitat use and movement characteristics among the different sea turtle species. Although half of all turtles crossed one or more international boundaries, dispersal varied among species. Loggerhead turtles had a high dispersal, with 80% crossing an international boundary, while hawksbill turtles displayed higher post-release residency, with 66% remaining within UAE territorial waters. Amputee turtles moved similarly to non-amputee animals of the same species. Loggerhead turtles travelled faster (mean ± sd = 15.3 ± 8 km/day) than hawksbill turtles (9 ± 7 km/day). Both amputee and non-amputee sea turtles within a species moved similarly. Our tracking results highlight that rehabilitated sea turtles, including amputees, can successfully survive in the wild following release for up to our ~one-year monitoring time therefore supporting the suitability for release of sea turtles that have recovered from major injuries such as amputations. However, more broadly, the high mortality from anthropogenic factors in the Arabian Gulf region is clearly a serious issue and conservation challenge.

Conservation and the 4 Rs, which are rescue, rehabilitation, release, and research

Vertebrate animals can be injured or threatened with injury through human activities, thus warranting their "rescue." Details of wildlife rescue, rehabilitation, release, and associated research (our 4 Rs) are often recorded in large databases, resulting in a wealth of available information. This information has huge research potential and can contribute to understanding of animal biology, anthropogenic impacts on wildlife, and species conservation. However, such databases have been little used, few studies have evaluated factors influencing success of rehabilitation and/or release, recommended actions to conserve threatened species have rarely arisen, and direct benefits for species conservation are yet to be demonstrated. We therefore recommend that additional research be based on data from rescue, rehabilitation, and release of animals that is broader in scope than previous research and would have community support.

Comparative analysis of gut bacterial communities of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) pre-hospitalization and post-rehabilitation by high-throughput sequencing of bacterial 16S rRNA gene

Stranded green turtles (Chelonia mydas) are often cared for in rehabilitation centers until they recover. Although the specific causal agents of diseases in stranded turtles are difficult to diagnose, we know that gut microbiota of green turtles play a vital role in health as well as a wide range of diseases. The objective of this study was to characterize and compare the gut bacterial communities between pre-hospitalization (PH) and post-rehabilitation (PR) stranded green turtles using high-throughput sequencing analysis targeting V1-V3 regions of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene. A total of eight cloacal swab samples were collected from four green turtles undergoing rehabilitation. Proteobacteria dominating in both PH and PR samples without any significant difference. Firmicutes was the second and Bacteroidetes was the third most abundant phylum in PH samples, while Bacteroidetes prevailed in PR samples, followed by Firmicutes. The predominance of the genus Bacteroides in both PH and PR samples indicates the importance of this genus in turtle gut health. At a class level, Epsilonproteobacteria was significantly (P<0.05) associated with PH samples and Deltaproteobacteria predominated (P<0.05) in PR samples. The significant abundance of Campylobacter fetus, Escherichia coli, Clostridium botulinum and Vibrio parahaemolyticus in PH samples indicate pathogenic associations with stranded green turtles with zoonotic potential. The presence of Salmonella enterica in only PR samples suggest possible acquisition of this bacteria during rehabilitation. In this study, all post-rehabilitation green turtles exhibited similar bacterial communities, irrespective of their microbial compositions at pre-hospitalization. The marked differences in the gut bacterial communities of PH and PR turtles indicate the outcome of dietary, management and environmental shift during rehabilitation. Therefore, it is important to address the process of restoring normal gut microbiota of recovered turtles prior to release back to their natural habitat.

Status of marine turtle rehabilitation in Queensland

Rehabilitation of marine turtles in Queensland has multifaceted objectives. It treats individual animals, serves to educate the public, and contributes to conservation. We examined the outcome from rehabilitation, time in rehabilitation, and subsequent recapture and restranding rates of stranded marine turtles between 1996 and 2013 to determine if the benefits associated with this practice are cost-effective as a conservation tool. Of 13,854 marine turtles reported as stranded during this 18-year period, 5,022 of these turtles were stranded alive with the remainder verified as dead or of unknown condition. A total of 2,970 (59%) of these live strandings were transported to a rehabilitation facility. Overall, 1,173/2,970 (39%) turtles were released over 18 years, 101 of which were recaptured: 77 reported as restrandings (20 dead, 13 alive subsequently died, 11 alive subsequently euthanized, 33 alive) and 24 recaptured during normal marine turtle population monitoring or fishing activities. Of the turtles admitted to rehabilitation exhibiting signs of disease, 88% of them died, either unassisted or by euthanasia and 66% of turtles admitted for unknown causes of stranding died either unassisted or by euthanasia. All turtles recorded as having a buoyancy disorder with no other presenting problem or disorder recorded, were released alive. In Queensland, rehabilitation costs approximately $1,000 per animal per year admitted to a center, $2,583 per animal per year released, and $123,750 per animal per year for marine turtles which are presumably successfully returned to the functional population. This practice may not be economically viable in its present configuration, but may be more cost effective as a mobile response unit. Further there is certainly benefit giving individual turtles a chance at survival and educating the public in the perils facing marine turtles. As well, rehabilitation can provide insight into the diseases and environmental stressors causing stranding, arming researchers with information to mitigate negative impacts.

Hypothermic stunning of green sea turtles in a western Gulf of Mexico foraging habitat

Texas waters provide one of the most important developmental and foraging habitats for juvenile green turtles (Chelonia mydas) in the western Gulf of Mexico, but hypothermic stunning is a significant threat and was the largest cause of green turtle strandings in Texas from 1980 through 2015; of the 8,107 green turtles found stranded, 4,529 (55.9%) were victims of hypothermic stunning. Additionally, during this time, 203 hypothermic stunned green turtles were found incidentally captured due to power plant water intake entrapment. Overall, 63.9% of 4,529 hypothermic stunned turtles were found alive, and 92.0% of those survived rehabilitation and were released. Numbers of green turtles recorded as stranded and as affected by hypothermic stunning increased over time, and were most numerous from 2007 through 2015. Large hypothermic stunning events (with more than 450 turtles documented) occurred during the winters of 2009–2010, 2010–2011, 2013–2014, and 2014–2015. Hypothermic stunning was documented between November and March, but peaked at various times depending on passage of severe weather systems. Hypothermic stunning occurred state-wide, but was most prevalent in South Texas, particularly the Laguna Madre. In the Laguna Madre, hypothermic stunning was associated with an abrupt drop in water temperatures strong northerly winds, and a threshold mean water temperature of 8.0°C predicted large turtle hypothermic stunning events. Knowledge of environmental parameters contributing to hypothermic stunning and the temporal and spatial distribution of turtles affected in the past, can aid with formulation of proactive, targeted search and rescue efforts that can ultimately save the lives of many affected individuals, and aid with recovery efforts for this bi-national stock. Such rescue efforts are required under the U.S. Endangered Species Act and respond to humanitarian concerns of the public.