Oxidative stress-induced changes in wooden breast and mitigation strategies: A review

Wooden breast (WB) is a multifactorial muscular abnormality resulting from the interplay between genetic predispositions for rapid growth, physiological stress, and anatomical impairments. This myopathy has been a persistent challenge in the poultry industry since its initial identification a decade ago. WB negatively impacts meat quality, leading to increased toughness and reduced nutritional value. Building on foundational research utilizing multiomics technologies, hypoxia-induced oxidative stress has been identified as a key early event driving the pathological processes of WB. This review provides a comprehensive overview and the state-of-the-art evidence on the pivotal role of oxidative stress in WB myopathy. It begins by examining the generation of reactive intermediates that induce oxidative damage and the host's defense mechanisms aimed at mitigating these threats. The discussion then focuses on the consequences of oxidative damage for mitochondria, protein and lipid oxidation, connective tissue remodeling, and inflammation-pathological hallmarks of WB-affected muscles. Additionally, the review highlights how oxidative stress influences satellite cell behavior, impairing the repair and regeneration of muscle tissues, a process implicated in WB. Finally, efforts to prevent or mitigate WB myopathy are summarized, with particular attention to potential intervention strategies targeting oxidative stress. These include innovative feed formulations and gut microbiota modulation, which show promise in alleviating the severity of the condition.

Breast myopathy co-occurrence and its impact on carcass and meat quality attributes in broiler chickens

Wooden breast (WB), spaghetti meat (SM) and white striping (WS) are significant research focuses due to their impact on meat quality. This study examines the relationship between different myopathies in chickens from a commercial slaughterhouse and compares physicochemical traits between breasts with single and multiple myopathies and control (CO-no apparent myopathy). A total of 240 breasts were evaluated for myopathy presence, severity and location, and physicochemical parameters (i.e. carcass weight and color; breast color, pH, electrical conductivity, drip, thaw and cooking loss, Warner-Brazler texture, moisture, protein, fat and collagen content). A 54.8 % of the affected breasts presented multiple myopathies, and within them, a correlation between WB and WS was found (Kendall's tau = 0.24; P < 0.01). Additionally, myopathies were more prevalent in the breast cranial region (P < 0.05). Most physicochemical parameters varied significantly across myopathy classes. Breasts presenting WB, alone or in combination, were the most altered, showing: heavier carcasses with higher breast yield and redder and yellower skin; breasts with higher L*, b* and Hue, higher moisture, fat and collagen and lower protein content, and with higher cooking loss and lower resistance to shear (P < 0.05). SM, WS and their combination often had intermediate values between CO and WB breasts, with a few exceptions in carcass color and breast fat content. The principal component discriminant analysis revealed a proximity of CO to WS, SM, and their combinations, and a clear separation to WB and WB-SM. Breast yield, pH, cooking and thaw loss, and protein and fat content were the most discriminative parameters between categories. The partial least squares discriminant analysis could not differentiate between single, multiple myopathies and CO (accuracy = 42.6 %), but showed 80.63 % balanced accuracy for WB-SM, 74.26 % for SM and 74.61 % for CO. These findings confirm most previously reported data on meat quality, and provide a thorough analysis that can help industries to improve breast myopathies postmortem classification and identification.

Influences of Growth-Related Myopathies on Peptide Patterns of In Vitro Digested Cooked Chicken Breast and Stress-Related Responses in an Intestinal Caco-2 Cell Model

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of growth-related myopathies, i.e., normal, wooden breast (WB), white striping (WS), and the combined lesions of WS and WB (WS + WB), on the molecular response of Caco-2 cells. A total of 24 cooked chicken breasts (n = 6 per myopathy) was subjected to an in vitro digestion using an enzymatic process mimicking human gastrointestinal digestion. Based on peptidomics, in vitro protein digestion of the abnormal samples, particularly WB meat, resulted in more peptides with lower molecular mass relative to those of normal samples. The cooked meat hydrolysates obtained at the end of the digestion were applied to a Caco-2 cell model for 4 h. The cell viability of treated normal and abnormal samples was not different (p ≥ 0.05). Absolute transcript abundances of genes associated with primary oxidative stress response, including nuclear factor erythroid 2 like 2, superoxide dismutase, and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 were determined using a droplet digital polymerase chain reaction. No significant differences in transcript abundance of those genes in Caco-2 cells were demonstrated between normal and the abnormal samples (p ≥ 0.05). Overall, the findings supported that, compared to normal meat, the cooked chicken meat with growth-related myopathies might be digested and absorbed to a greater extent. The cooked abnormal meat did not exert significant transcriptional impacts regarding oxidative stress on the human epithelial Caco-2 cells.

Nutritional Composition, Technological Quality, and Sensory Attributes of Chicken Breast Meat Affected by White Striping, Wooden Breast, and Spaghetti Meat: A Comprehensive Evaluation

This study assessed the impact of growth-related myopathies-white striping (WS), wooden breast (WB), and spaghetti meat (SM)-on the technological properties, lipid and protein oxidation, chemical composition, and profiles of fatty acids (FAs), amino acids, minerals, and sensory attributes of pectoralis major muscles in broiler chickens. Breasts with myopathies had similar pH and lightness but exhibited lower redness and yellowness in the case of WB defect compared to normal meat (p < 0.05). The WB samples also showed higher cooking losses than normal meat and increased shear force compared to the SM samples (p < 0.01). Moreover, WB meat showed lower protein content (p < 0.001) than the normal and SM samples but the highest glycine content (p < 0.05). The WB meat also exhibited significant alterations in FA composition, with higher levels (p< 0.05) of C18:2n6, C22:6n3, n3 PUFA, n6 PUFA, and total PUFA compared to the normal and SM samples. The presence of myopathies did not influence the meat mineral composition, oxidative pattern, or sensory properties. In conclusion, growth-related myopathies in broiler chickens impact the technological quality and chemical composition of their breast meat, with WB showing the most significant alterations in protein content and FA composition. These changes indicate potential challenges to processing and nutritional quality, though sensory attributes remain largely unaffected.

Skeletal muscle metabolic characteristics and fresh meat quality defects associated with wooden breast

Wooden breast (WB) is a myopathy that occurs in pectoralis major (PM) muscles, predominately affecting large, fast-growing broilers. Severe myodegeneration, increased hypoxia, reduced blood flow, and increased collagen deposition are hallmark characteristics of WB that culminate in unsatisfactory fresh meat quality attributes, such as poor water-holding capacity, tenderness, and processing characteristics. Therefore, WB meat is often downgraded resulting in economic losses for the United States poultry industry. Although WB has been well characterized, its etiology remains undefined. As the scientific community continues to resolve mechanisms responsible for WB onset, understanding biochemical changes associated with WB may facilitate solutions to negate its poor meat quality attributes. Given changes in metabolism of living muscle can alter biochemical processes during the conversion of muscle to meat, this review aims to summarize and discuss the current knowledge of WB muscle and meat biochemistry. For example, it appears metabolic pathways that support combating stress are upregulated in WB muscle at the expense of glycolytic flux, which presumably contributes to the high ultimate pH of WB meat. Further, perturbed function of WB mitochondria, such as altered calcium handling, impacts aspects of postmortem metabolism and proteolysis. Collectively, metabolic dysfunction of WB muscle alters the biochemical processes that occur during the conversion of muscle to meat, and thus contributes to the poor WB meat quality.

Effect of Age, Deboning Time of Carcass, and Different Cooking Conditions on the Woody Breast Myopathies in Chicken: A Meta-Analysis

This meta-analysis review undertakes a comprehensive examination of various approaches for identifying myopathic fillets and meticulously evaluates the effects of bird age, deboning time, and different cooking and storage conditions on woody breast (WB) myopathic conditions in broiler deboned fillets. The data, meticulously collected from 20 articles based on predefined inclusion criteria sourced from various databases and online resources, reveal significant insights. For instance, the analysis uncovers that deboning time significantly affects Meullenet-Owens Razor Shear (MORS), Blunt Meullenet-Owens Razor Shear (BMORS), and descriptive analysis values (p < 0.001). Instrumentation techniques, such as compression force and shear force, along with different cooking conditions, strongly impact BMORS shear force values (R2 = 86.80%), with significance levels ranging from 0.01 to 0.001. Deboning time also substantially impacts MORS shear force values (R = 64.03%). In contrast, the effects of deboning time, bird age, and cooking conditions on descriptive sensory evaluation are minimal when compared to woody breast fillets (age of birds: R2 = 26.53%; cooking conditions: R2 = 32.57%; deboning time: R2 = 10.06%). The overall effect of bird age on chicken breast meat quality shows significant differences for the evaluated parameters (Hedges' g [95% CI] = -0.72 [0.17, 1.26], I2 = 93%, p < 0.01). The sous vide cooking method significantly affects shear force energies and sensory descriptive evaluation for woody breast fillets (Hedges' g [95% CI] = 5.30 [-50.30, 83.40], I2 = 98%, p < 0.01). These findings, with their significant implications, provide valuable insights for optimizing processing conditions in the poultry industry to reduce woody breast occurrences and enhance meat quality, instilling confidence in the robustness of the research.

Relationships of quality indices with wooden breast myopathy severity in chicken breast meat under refrigerated storage

1. This study investigated the relationships of quality indices with the severity of wooden breast (WB) myopathy in chicken breast meat under refrigerated storage. The physicochemical properties, water-holding capacity (WHC), microbial quality and fatty acid profiles of normal chicken breast meat samples (NOR samples, n = 63), moderate WB (MWB, n = 63) myopathy and severe WB (SWB, n = 63) myopathy (MWB and SWB samples, respectively) were evaluated immediately after sampling and after 4 and 8 d of refrigerated storage at 4°C.2. Total collagen, fat, saturated and monounsaturated fatty acid contents, redness and pH of the SWB and MWB samples were higher than the NOR samples. The SWB samples that were stored for 8 d had poor WHC, total viable counts (TVC) of higher than 7.0log colony-forming units, total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content of greater than 15 mg/100 g and a thiobarbituric acid - reactive substance level of higher than 1 mg/kg malondialdehyde.3. No significant difference was observed in the TVB-N content and TVC of the MWB and NOR samples during storage. Polyunsaturated fatty acid content was lower in the SWB and MWB samples than in the NOR samples. The SWB samples were tougher than the MWB and NOR samples after 8 d of refrigeration.4. In conclusion, the quality of chicken breast meat with SWB myopathy degraded considerably over time; thus, such meat should not be subjected to extended refrigeration for storage.

Water properties in intact wooden breast fillets during refrigerated storage

The wooden breast (WB) condition notably alters moisture content and water holding capacity (WHC) in broiler breast fillets. The purpose of this study was to investigate water properties during refrigerated storage from 4 h to 168 h postmortem using time domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR). Water properties measured included mobility (T), proportion (P), and abundance per 100 g of meat (A). Changes in meat quality indicators including compression force, color, pH, cumulative purge loss, and proximate composition were also measured. Compression force and energy of the WB fillets were higher than normal fillets (P < 0.05). Slopes of changes in lightness of the WB and normal fillets were different in skin and bone side (P < 0.05). The slope of the purge loss from the WB fillets was higher than the normal fillets (P < 0.05). Time domain nuclear magnetic resonance analysis showed 4 water populations in intact broiler fillets with transverse relaxation time (T2) constants at approximately 4 to 5 milliseconds (ms) (designated as 2b, corresponding to hydration water or bound water), 40 to 60 ms (designated as 21, corresponding to intra-myofibrillar water or immobilized water), 80 to 210 ms (designated as 22a, corresponding to extra-myofibrillar water or free water with lower mobility) and 210 to 500 ms (designated as 22b, corresponding to extra-myofibrillar water or free water with higher mobility) during early postmortem storage (between 4 h and 72 h postmortem) and only 3 populations (2b, 21, and 22a) after 72 h postmortem. There were interaction effects (P < 0.05) between storage time and WB condition for all water properties except T2b, A2b/100 g, and T22b. The linear change of T21, P21, A21/100 g, T22a, A22a/100 g, P22b, and A22b/100 g in stored WB samples were different from the normal fillets (P < 0.05). During storage, P21 and A21/100 g of the WB fillets exhibited faster linear increases than those of the normal fillets, whereas T21 and T22a of the normal fillets and A22a/100 g, P22b, and A22b/100 g of the WB fillets showed faster linear decreases (P < 0.05). Our data demonstrate that the WB condition affects changes in water properties in broiler fillets during postmortem refrigerated storage.

Effects of Wooden Breast Syndrome in Broiler Chicken on Sarcoplasmic, Myofibrillar, and Connective Tissue Proteins and Their Association with Muscle Fiber Area

This study was conducted on chicken pectoralis major muscle with different wooden breast severity in combination with different sampling locations to investigate the effects of wooden breast syndrome on protein traits and total myofiber area, and their associations. Contents of sarcoplasmic, salt-soluble myofibrillar and salt-insoluble protein and proportion of total myofiber area significantly declined with increasing severity in the superficial part of muscle, whereas the amount of heat-soluble/insoluble collagen and protein denaturation as well as the area of degenerated myofibers, connective tissue and cellular infiltrates increased. Myofibril protein content indicators showed strong positive correlations to total myofiber area. Moreover, PCA results indicated that severe wooden breast is positively linked to muscle collagen content and to protein denaturation. Our results suggest that decrease in sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar proteins is associated with reduction of myofiber area. In turn, the muscle fibers are replaced by connective tissue, accompanied by excessive myofibrillar and sarcoplasmic protein denaturation.

The hypoxia-inducible factor 1 pathway plays a critical role in the development of breast muscle myopathies in broiler chickens: a comprehensive review

In light of the increased worldwide demand for poultry meat, genetic selection efforts have intensified to produce broiler strains that grow at a higher rate, have greater breast meat yield (BMY), and convert feed to meat more efficiently. The increased selection pressure for these traits, BMY in particular, has produced multiple breast meat quality defects collectively known as breast muscle myopathies (BMM). Hypoxia has been proposed as one of the major mechanisms triggering the onset and occurrence of these myopathies. In this review, the relevant literature on the causes and consequences of hypoxia in broiler breast muscles is reviewed and discussed, with a special focus on the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) pathway. Muscle fiber hypertrophy induced by selective breeding for greater BMY reduces the space available in the perimysium and endomysium for blood vessels and capillaries. The hypoxic state that results from the lack of circulation in muscle tissue activates the HIF-1 pathway. This pathway alters energy metabolism by promoting anaerobic glycolysis, suppressing the tricarboxylic acid cycle and damaging mitochondrial function. These changes lead to oxidative stress that further exacerbate the progression of BMM. In addition, activating the HIF-1 pathway promotes fatty acid synthesis, lipogenesis, and lipid accumulation in myopathic muscle tissue, and interacts with profibrotic growth factors leading to increased deposition of matrix proteins in muscle tissue. By promoting lipidosis and fibrosis, the HIF-1 pathway contributes to the development of the distinctive phenotypes of BMM, including white striations in white striping-affected muscles and the increased hardness of wooden breast-affected muscles.

Monitoring physiological processes of fast-growing broilers during the whole life cycle: Changes of redox-homeostasis effected to trassulfuration pathway predicting the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

In the broiler industry, the average daily gain and feed conversion ratio are extremely favorable, but the birds are beginning to approach the maximum of their genetic capacity. However, as a consequence of strong genetic selection, the occurrence of certain metabolic diseases, such as myopathies, ascites, sudden cardiac death and tibial dyschondroplasia, is increasing. These metabolic diseases can greatly affect the health status and welfare of birds, as well as the quality of meat. The main goal of this study was to investigate the changes in the main parameters of redox homeostasis during the rearing (1-42 days of age) of broilers with high genetic capacity, such as the concentrations of malondialdehyde, vitamin C, vitamin E, and reduced glutathione, the activities of glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase, and the inhibition rate of superoxide dismutase. Damage to the transsulfuration pathway during growth and the reason for changes in the level of homocysteine were investigated. Further, the parameters that can characterize the biochemical changes occurring in the birds were examined. Our study is the first characterize plasma albumin saturation. A method was developed to measure the levels of other small molecule thiol components of plasma. Changes in redox homeostasis induce increases in the concentrations of tumor necrosis factor alpha and inflammatory interleukins interleukin 2, interleukin 6 and interleukin 8 in broilers reared according to current large-scale husbandry technology and feeding protocols. A significant difference in all parameters tested was observed on the 21st day. The concentrations of cytokines and homocysteine increased, while the concentrations of glutathione and cysteine in the plasma decreased. Our findings suggest that observed changes in the abovementioned biochemical indices have a negative effect on poultry health.

Insights into Intramuscular Connective Tissue Associated with Wooden Breast Myopathy in Fast-Growing Broiler Chickens

Wooden breast myopathy (WBM) is a meat abnormality affecting pectoralis majors (PMs) of fast-growing broiler chickens. WBM-affected PMs exhibited varied meat qualities with increasing WBM severity. Normal PMs (NOR), mild WBM-affected PMs (MIL), moderate WBM-affected PMs (MOD), and severe WBM-affected PMs (SEV) were selected as raw materials. The structure and organization of connective tissue and fibrillar collagen were investigated through immersing with sodium hydroxide solution, Masson trichrome staining, and using an electron microscope. The mechanical strength of intramuscular connective tissue was analyzed via the shear force of samples treated with sodium hydroxide solution. The thermal property and secondary structure of connective tissue were analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The obtained connective tissue was dissolved in a sodium hydroxide solution for the evaluation of the physicochemical properties of proteins, including particle size, molecular weight, surface hydrophobicity, and intrinsic fluorescence. In particular, the particle size was measured using a zeta potential instrument. The molecular weight was analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The surface hydrophobicity and intrinsic fluorescence were measured by spectroscopy technology. Histologically, macrophage infiltration, myodegeneration and necrosis, regeneration, fibrous connective tissue, and thickened perimysial connective tissue were observed in WBM-affected PMs, especially SEV with fibrosis, including blood vessels. Compared with NOR, WBM led to increased average diameter of the collagen fibrils in perimysial (36.61 nm of NOR to 69.73 nm of SEV) and endomysial (34.19 nm of NOR to 56.93 nm of SEV) layers. A significant increase (p < 0.05) was observed in the mechanical strength (2.05 N to 5.55 N) of fresh PMs and the thermal transition temperature (onset temperature (T_O), 61.53 °C to 67.50 °C; maximum transition temperature (T_M), 66.46 °C to 70.18 °C; termination temperature (T_E), 77.20 °C to 80.88 °C) of connective tissue from NOR to SEV. Cooking decreased the mechanical strength, and MOD samples showed the highest mechanical strength (1.24 N, p < 0.05), followed by SEV (0.96 N), MIL (0.93 N), and NOR (0.72 N). For proteins in connective tissue, random coil (19.64% to 29.61%, p < 0.0001), particle size (p < 0.05), and surface hydrophobicity (p < 0.05) increased with the decrease in the α-helix (14.61% to 11.54%, p < 0.0001), β-sheet (45.71% to 32.80%, p < 0.0001), and intrinsic fluorescence of proteins from NOR to SEV. The molecular weights of intramuscular connective tissue proteins were in the ranges of >270 kDa, 180-270 kDa, 110-180 kDa, 95-100 kDa, and <15 kDa. Taken together, WBM resulted in thickened organization, tightly packed collagen fibrils, increased mechanical strength and thermal temperature, and increased particle size, surface hydrophobicity, and intrinsic fluorescence of proteins in connective tissue, as the WBM severity increased.

Physicochemical properties of wooden breast-extracted myosin and rheological properties of its heat-induced gel

BACKGROUND

It is reported that broilers with 'wooden breast' have poor processing properties, such as low binding and water-holding capacities. However, the reason for the poor functional characteristics has not been clarified. In this study, myosin was extracted from a wooden breast. Its physicochemical properties were investigated to clarify the relationship between the structure and physicochemical properties of the heating gel of myosin obtained from the wooden breast.

RESULTS

The turbidity of myosin solution extracted from wooden breast increased with increase in the heat treatment to a higher value than that from the normal breast meat myosin. The solubility of myosin collected from a wooden breast after heating decreased like normal breast muscle myosin. The surface hydrophobicity of myosin removed from wooden breast increased continually above 60 °C, unlike the change in surface hydrophobicity of normal breast myosin. The free thiol group of myosin extracted from the wooden breast was higher than normal breast myosin before and after heating. The apparent elasticity of heat-induced gels and chicken meat sausages was significantly lower in sausages and gel with wooden breast than normal ones (P < 0.05). The microstructure of the heated gel of normal myosin showed a fine network structure. In contrast, the heat-induced gel of wooden breast-extracted myosin showed a structure with loosely connected aggregates and many gaps.

CONCLUSION

The coarseness of the internal gel structure of myosin extracted from wooden breast was shown to affect the apparent elasticity of the gel and sausages made from the chicken meat. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Changes of Raw Texture, Intramuscular Connective Tissue Properties and Collagen Profiles in Broiler Wooden Breast during Early Storage

A recently identified broiler myopathy known as wooden breast (WB) is predominantly found in the pectoralis major muscle of fast-growing broiler hybrids and is causing significant losses to the poultry industry. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of WB syndrome on raw meat texture, purge loss and thermal properties of intramuscular connective tissue of pectoralis major muscle in the early postmortem period (1-3 days). Results showed that the presence of the WB muscles condition at 1 day postmortem was associated with significantly increased stiffness (27.0 N vs. 23.1 N) and significantly increased purge loss (1.8% vs. 1.0%) compared to normal breast (NB). However, on 3 days postmortem, these parameters did not differ between WB and NB groups. Insoluble and total collagen content was significantly higher in WB muscles compared to NB muscles, and the extractability of intramuscular connective tissue (IMCT) of WB was also higher (0.42% vs. 0.37%) compared to NB and remained stable in the early postmortem period. There was significantly lower protein content in the sarcoplasmic protein fraction and myofibrillar protein fraction of WB muscles compared to NB muscles (p < 0.05). The IMCT of these two groups showed different thermal properties, as the enthalpy of denaturation (ΔH) was significantly lower in WB muscles compared to NB muscles. The WB syndrome had a great effect on the texture and connective tissue properties of the meat compared to normal muscle, with a tendency for having a lower purge loss and higher raw meat hardness.

Breast muscle white striping and serum corticosterone reduced in broilers exposed to laser environmental enrichment

Genetic selection for breast yields and fewer days to market has inadvertent effects on broiler meat quality. Woody breast (WB) and white striping (WS) are pectoralis major myopathies prevalent in commercial broilers. Effects of voluntary exercise on these disorders, specifically, are unknown. A second-generation laser enrichment device shown to induce activity in Ross 308 and 708 birds was implemented using 1,360 Ross 708 broilers randomly assigned to laser enrichment or control for 49 d. Laser-enriched birds were exposed to 6-min laser periods 4 times daily. Seventy focal birds were gait and contact dermatitis scored weekly. Blood was collected wk 5 to 7 from 56 broilers for serum corticosterone, myoglobin, and troponin. Seventy broilers were sampled for breast muscle width, fillet dimensions, and WB and WS at wk 6 and 7. One and 2-day postmortem, fillet compression force and water-holding capacity were measured. Serum corticosterone was reduced by up to 21% in laser-enriched birds wk 5 to 7 (P < 0.01). Serum myoglobin was increased in laser-enriched broilers by 5% on wk 5 (P < 0.01) but increased in control birds wk 6 to 7 by up to 13% (P < 0.01). Serum troponin was reduced in laser-enriched broilers by 9% at wk 5 (P < 0.01). Laser exposure increased breast width and fillet weight at d 42 by 1.08 cm (P < 0.05) and 30 g (P < 0.05). At d 49, fillet height was increased 0.42 cm in laser-enriched birds (P < 0.05). Laser enrichment reduced severe WS incidence at d 42 by 24% (P < 0.05) and on d 49 by 15% (P < 0.10). Severe WB score was numerically reduced by 11% in laser enrichment on d 42 and 18% on d 49 (P > 0.05). Water-holding capacity was improved in laser-enriched breasts (P < 0.01) and expression of myostatin and insulin-like growth factor 2 were increased on d 49 (P ≤ 0.01. Laser enrichment reduced markers of stress and muscle damage while improving breast muscle quality and is therefore a potential effective enrichment for commercial broilers.

Dietary vasodilator and vitamin C/L-arginine/choline blend improve broiler feed efficiency during finishing and reduce woody breast severity at 6 and 7 wks

Woody breast has become a considerable economic concern to the poultry industry. This myopathy presents rigid, pale breasts characterized by replacement of lean muscle protein with connective tissue, a result of hypoxia and oxidative stress in a metabolically starved muscle with inadequate circulation. Hence, the objectives were to supplement broiler diets with ingredients specifically aimed to improve circulation and oxidative status. About 1,344 male Ross 708 broilers were assigned to 1 of 4 diets: 1) a basal diet (control), 2) basal diet plus a blend of 0.2% supplemental L-arginine, 0.17% choline bitartrate, and 0.03% vitamin C (blend), 3) 0.1% vasodilator ingredient (vasodilator), or 4) 0.02% Astaxanthin ingredient (AsX). At d 14, 28, 42, and 49, performance outcomes were collected on all birds and serum from 16 broilers/diet (n = 64) was analyzed for creatine kinase and myoglobin. Once weekly beginning on d 28, a subset of 192 broilers were measured for breast width. On d 42 and 49, breast fillets from 16 broilers/diet (n = 64) were palpated for woody breast severity, weighed, and analyzed for compression force at 1-day postmortem and water-holding capacity at 2-day postmortem. mRNA was isolated from 15 breast fillets/timepoint for qPCR quantification of myogenic gene expression. Data were analyzed using Proc Mixed (SAS Version 9.4) with the fixed effect of diet. Feed conversion ratio was improved in the blend and vasodilator-fed birds d 42 to 49, each by over 2 points (P < 0.05). Breast width was increased in the control on d 42 compared to the vasodilator and AsX-fed broilers (P < 0.05). At d 42, there were 12% greater normal fillets in blend diet-fed birds and 13% more normal scores in vasodilator-fed birds at d 49 compared to the control. At d 49, myogenin expression was upregulated in the AsX diet compared to blend and control diets (P < 0.05), and muscle regulatory factor-4 expression was increased by 6.5% in the vasodilator diet compared to the blend and AsX diets (P < 0.05). Blend and vasodilator diets simultaneously improved feed efficiency in birds approaching market weight while reducing woody breast severity.

Use of image analysis to evaluate morphometric measurements of broiler breast fillets affected by the woody breast condition

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationships between morphometric measurements and woody breast (WB) severity in breast fillets using image processing as an objective detection method for WB. Breast fillets were collected and categorized as normal (NORM), mild (MILD), moderate (MOD), and severe (SEV). Compression force and energy increased as WB severity increased alongside a decrease in severity through fillet regions (P < 0.05). Length and caudal thickness were highest in SEV and MOD groups (P < 0.05), and cranial thickness increased as WB severity increased (P < 0.05). The aerial area was the smallest in NORM fillets, while the planar area increased from NORM to MOD (P < 0.05). Fillet curvatures were highest in SEV and MOD fillets (P < 0.05). All measured parameters expressed strong correlation to WB scores (P < 0.05) except width. The results from this study may provide a basis for further assessment of the potential incorporation of these measurements into vision grading systems that may allow processors to sort fillets by WB severity in commercial plants.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05525-x.

Restoring Functionalities in Chicken Breast Fillets with Spaghetti Meat Myopathy by Using Dairy Proteins Gels

The use of caseinate, whole milk powder, and two whey protein preparations (WP; 2% w/w) was studied in minced meat made with normal breast (NB), and ones showing spaghetti meat (SM). SM is an emerging myopathy known for muscle fiber separation and lower protein content, costing $100s of millions to the industry. Using SM without dairy proteins resulted in a higher cooking loss (SM: 3.75%, NB: 2.29%; p < 0.05), and lower hardness (SM: 29.83 N, NB: 34.98 N), and chewiness (SM: 1.29, NB: 1.56) compared to NB. Using dairy proteins, except WP concentrate and WP isolate, significantly improved yield and increased hardness. Adding WP isolate to SM resulted in a similar texture profile as NB samples without dairy proteins (34 and 35 N hardness; 0.22 and 0.24 springiness; 1.57 and 1.59 chewiness values, respectively). Adding caseinate and whole milk to SM showed a more substantial effect of improving water-holding capacity, increasing hardness, gumminess, and chewiness compared to adding WP; i.e., adding caseinate and milk powder resulted in higher values for those parameters compared to NB without additives. Overall, it is shown that dairy proteins can be added to SM to produce minced poultry meat products with similar or higher yield and texture profiles compared to using normal breast fillets.

Assessment of meat quality distributions of breast fillets with woody breast condition in the raw and cooked state

The objective of this study was to determine meat quality distributions and assess hardness distributions in raw and cooked breast fillets with the woody breast (WB) condition, in addition to evaluating the relationship between water properties and WB severity. A total of 90 breast fillets were collected and categorized as normal (NORM), mild (MILD) and severe (SEV). Breast weight, drip loss, compression measurements, cook loss, shear and texture profile analysis (TPA) values were measured for each sample by fillet location (cranial to caudal) and sampling depth (cranial-superficial, cranial-internal, middle-superficial, and middle-internal) in the raw and cooked meat state. Low-field NMR relaxation measurements were also collected for both the raw and cooked fillets. Results indicate that severe WB expressed increased hardness, a higher water content (bound water and free water) and reduced meat quality attributes in raw and cooked meat. Breast fillet hardness and meat quality distributions were unevenly distributed between fillets, compression measurements were higher mainly in the cranial region, and progressively decreased toward the caudal region for both raw and cooked fillets. Shear force and energy values were higher in the cranial region than in the middle region, and TPA values were higher in superficial regions rather than internal portions. Additionally, low-field NMR could be used to predict WB through variation in water properties as thermal processing reduces water distributing abilities in affected fillets.

Factors Affecting Breast Myopathies in Broiler Chickens and Quality of Defective Meat: A Meta-Analysis

Fast-growing broiler chickens are subjected to breast myopathies such as white striping (WS), wooden breast (WB), and spaghetti meat (SM). Available studies about risk factors for myopathy occurrence often used flock data whereas a few reports evaluated chicken individual data. Thus, the present study aimed to elucidate the effect of growth and slaughter traits, besides sex and genotype on myopathy occurrence. Data were obtained from eight experimental trials, which used a total of 6,036 broiler chickens. Sex, genotype, daily weight gain, slaughter weight, and breast yield were evaluated as potential risk factors by logistic regression analyses. Then, the effects of myopathy and sex were evaluated on meat rheological traits (pH, colour, cooking losses and shear force). Based on a logistic regression, WS occurrence was associated with genotype, breast weight, and breast yield. Compared with chickens with intermediate breast weight and breast yield, higher odds of having WS were found in chickens with high breast weight (OR: 1.49) and yield (OR: 1.27), whereas lower odds were found in those with low breast weight (OR: 0.57) and yield (OR: 0.82). As for WB and SM, females had lower odds of having WB (OR: 0.55) and higher odds of showing SM (OR: 15.4) compared to males. In males, higher odds of having WB were found in chickens with a high daily weight gain (OR: 1.75) compared to those with an intermediate daily weight gain. In females, higher odds of having SM were associated to a high slaughter weight (OR: 2.10) while lower odds to a low slaughter weight (OR: 0.87). As for meat quality, only WB meat was clearly different for some technological and sensorial properties, which can play a major role also in meat processing. In conclusion, our analysis identified breast development as a potential risk factor for WS, while a high growth was the risk factor for WB and SM. A different probability of having WB or SM in females and male was found.

Serum Creatine Kinase as a Biomarker to Predict Wooden Breast in vivo for Chicken Breeding

The present study aimed to find a blood marker for the prediction of wooden breast (WB) in live broiler to assist the genetic selection of fast-growing chickens. The experiments were carried out with two chicken flocks: 250 male broilers in flock 1 and 100 male and female broilers in flock 2. Both flocks were slaughtered and measured. The breast filets were assessed by combining subjective scoring and compression force at 28 (flock 1 only) and 42 days of age. The enzyme activity in serum and breast tissue (flock 1 only) of normal and affected groups was tested. The results showed that the compression force was significantly different between the normal and affected groups at 28 and 42 days of age (P < 0.001), and it increased significantly with rising WB and WS scores. The serum creatine kinase (CK) value increased significantly with rising compression force at 42 days of age (P < 0.001). The serum CK positively correlated with compression force (r = 0.608; P < 0.001) and the linear regression equation (serum CK = 0.9960^∗compression force + 1.884) was established for the line studied. The association between serum CK and compression force is consistent between flocks 1 and 2. In conclusion, our study confirmed that compression force could be the quantitative indicator to differentiate breast filets and found that serum CK could be a candidate biomarker to predict WB in live broilers and assist genetic selection in broiler breeding.

Meat quality traits and Blunt Meullenet-Owens Razor Shear characteristics of broiler breast fillets affected by woody breast condition and post-cooking meat temperature

This study aimed to investigate meat quality attributes, cooking performance, and water properties of woody breast (WB). A total of 48 broiler breast fillets (7 wk, 3 h debone) of 24 normal (NORM) and 24 severe WB (SEV) were collected. Raw meat characteristics (L*, a*, b*, pH, compression force and energy and) along with the blunt blade of the Meullenet-Owens razor shear (BMORS) properties were determined. Cooking time and internal meat temperature were recorded for each fillet every 5 min on each fillet during cooking. Water/moisture properties and shear values of BMORS were determined at different meat temperatures (HOT [68°C], AMBIENT [22°C] and COLD [4°C]) after cooking. SEV fillets showed higher L*, a*, b*, pH, CF, CE, BMORS force, BMORS energy, and peak counts of BMORS values compared to NORM fillets in raw state (P < 0.05). Cooking time was shorter in SEV fillets than NORM fillets (P < 0.0001). Cook loss, total water loss, and moisture loss (HOT, AMBIENT) were greater in SEV fillets than NORM fillets (P < 0.01). PC-BMORS were greater in SEV fillets than NORM fillets (P < 0.05), and all BMORS shear values increased as post-cooking meat temperature decreased (P < 0.05). Positive correlations were observed between WB scores and raw meat characteristics and shear values. There were also significant relationships (P < 0.001) between WB scores and cooking performance measures except moisture loss for COLD treatment. BMORS force and energy were moderately correlated to total water loss, cook loss, and moisture loss (HOT) regardless of meat temperature (P < 0.05); however, PC-BMORS was only correlated to total water loss at COLD and moisture loss (HOT) at all meat temperatures (P < 0.05). These data corroborate the association of WB condition with impaired quality/texture characteristics in raw and cooked fillets; WB also had a significant impact on cooking time, cooking at a faster rate, along with water/moisture loss during and after thermal processing. Results demonstrate that the post-cooking meat temperature plays an important role in shear test values.

Effect of Aging on the Quality of Breast Meat from Broilers Affected by Wooden Breast Myopathy

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of aging on the quality of breast meat from broilers affected of wooden breast. Samples that were classified as normal (control), moderate (hardness verified only in one region of breast fillet), and severe (hardness verified in all the extension of breast fillet) were evaluated fresh and after three and seven days of aging. Normal samples and samples with a moderate degree of myopathy showed greater water-holding capacity, which may benefit the processing industry of poultry meat. During the aging process, increase was observed in total collagen concentration (from 0.41% in normal samples to 0.56% in samples with severe degree). Samples of chicken breast affected by moderate degree showed higher myofibril fragmentation index (MFI = 115) than normal chicken samples (95.65). Although chicken samples affected with severe degree of wooden breast myopathy are more tender than normal chicken breasts, they produce more exudate, which can be detrimental to the processing of poultry meat. The aging process may improve the reduction of cooking weight loss and protein loss in exudation of broilers' breasts affected by wooden breast myopathy.

Evaluation of multi blade shear (MBS) for determining texture of raw and cooked broiler breast fillets with the woody breast myopathy

The objective of this study was to evaluate a novel multi-blade Shear (MBS) method for measuring texture properties of both raw and cooked broiler fillets (pectoralis major) with the woody breast (WB) myopathy. A total of 180 broiler breast fillets (60 normal [NOR], 60 moderate WB [MOD], and 60 severe WB [SEV]) in two meat states (fresh never-frozen, n = 144; frozen/thawed, n = 36) were chosen based on their WB scores. In each trial, half of the fillets were used for measuring raw meat texture and the other half for cooked meat texture measurement. Blunt Meullenet-Owens Razor Sear (BMORS) was used for comparison. In fresh raw broiler fillets, both the MBS and BMORS methods detected differences between NOR, MOD, and SEV fillets (P < 0.001). In cooked broiler fillets, the methods were equivalent in their ability to separate SEV from NOR fillets. The MBS measurements showed greater Spearman correlation coefficients with the WB scores (rs ≥ 0.70 in raw and ≥ 0.33 in cooked) compared to the BMORS measurements (rs = 0.63 in raw and ≤ 0.27 in cooked) for both fresh and cooked breast fillets. In addition, the MBS measurements were either as precise as or more precise than BMORS measurements regardless of meat condition (fresh vs. cooked) and the shear parameter. These results suggest that the MBS method is more reliable in measuring tactile characteristics of broiler breast fillets with the WB myopathy compared with the BMORS method.

Nutritional Intervention Strategies Using Dietary Antioxidants and Organic Trace Minerals to Reduce the Incidence of Wooden Breast and Other Carcass Quality Defects in Broiler Birds

Wooden breast (WB) is a degenerative myopathy seen in modern broiler birds resulting in quality downgrade of breast fillets. Affected filets show increased toughness both before as well as after cooking and have decreased water holding capacity and marinade pick up compared to normal fillets. Although the exact etiology is unknown, the circulatory insufficiency and increased oxidative stress in the breast muscles of modern broiler birds could be resulting in damage and degeneration of muscle fibers leading to myopathies. Three independent experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of various dietary interventions on the incidence of WB when birds are exposed to oxidative stress associated with feeding oxidized fat and mild heat stress. Feed additives such as dietary antioxidant [Ethoxyquin (ETX)], mineral methionine hydroxy analog chelate (MMHAC) of Zn, Cu, and Mn, and organic selenium (Org Se) were tested at recommended levels. In experiment 1, ETX reduced (P < 0.05) the incidence of severe WB induced by oxidized fat diet. The magnitude of improvement in percentage of normal (no WB) filets and reduction in muscle lipid peroxidation was greater (P < 0.05) when ETX and MMHAC were fed together as shown by experiment 2. In birds exposed to mild heat stress (Experiment 3), feeding MMHAC by itself reduced (P < 0.05) tissue damage by reducing incidence of tibial head lesions, skin scratches, breast blisters, in addition to increasing the incidence of normal (no WB) fillets. When MMHAC was combined with ETX and Org Se, further improvement (P < 0.05) in normal (no WB) filets was observed. In summary, under different oxidative stress conditions, dietary intervention programs that contain ETX, MMHA-Zn, -Cu, and -Mn and Org Se can improve performance and increase carcass integrity, reducing problems, such as WB, either independently or with additive effect. This effect is most likely attained by simultaneously improving the exogenous and endogenous antioxidant status, reducing oxidative stress, and improving tissue healing process of the bird.

A critical review of the mechanisms involved in the occurrence of growth-related abnormalities affecting broiler chicken breast muscles

In the past decade, the poultry industry has faced the occurrence of growth-related muscular abnormalities that mainly affect, with a high incidence rate, the Pectoralis major of the fast-growing genotypes selected for their production performances (high growth rate and breast yield). These myopathies are termed as White Striping, Wooden Breast, and Spaghetti Meat and exhibit distinctive phenotypes. A spatiotemporal distribution has been demonstrated for these disorders as in the early stage they primarily affect the superficial area in the cranial portion of the muscle and, as the birds grow older, involve the entire tissue. Aside from their distinctive phenotypes, these myopathies share common histological features. Thus, it might be speculated that common causative mechanisms might be responsible for the physiological and structural perturbations in the muscle associated with these conditions and might underpin their occurrence. The present review paper aims to represent a critical survey of the outcomes of all the histologic and ultrastructural observations carried out on White Striping, Wooden Breast, and Spaghetti Meat affected muscles. Our analysis has been performed by combining these outcomes with the findings of the genetic studies, trying to identify possible initial causative mechanisms triggering the onset and the time-series of the events ultimately resulting in the development and progression of the growth-related myopathies currently affecting broilers Pectoralis major muscles. Several evidences support the hypothesis that sarcoplasmic reticulum stress, primarily induced an accumulation of misfolded proteins (but also driven by other factors including altered calcium homeostasis and accumulation of fatty acids), may be responsible for the onset of these growth-related myopathies in broilers. At the same time, the development of hypoxic conditions, as a direct consequence of an inadequate vascularization, triggers a time-series sequence of events (i.e., phlebitis, oxidative stress, etc.) resulting in the activation of response mechanisms (i.e., modifications in the energetic metabolism, inflammation, degeneration, and regeneration) which are all strictly related to the progression of these myopathic disorders.

Hepatic Oxidative Stress, Apoptosis, and Inflammation in Broiler Chickens With Wooden Breast Myopathy

Wooden breast (WB) syndrome has emerged as a global myopathy in modern commercial broiler chickens, mainly affecting the pectoralis major muscle. Recent evidence suggests that WB myopathy is a systemic disease, which might be accompanied by other physiological disparities and metabolic changes. This study was conducted to systemically investigate the potential physiological changes in liver tissues as well as the possible mechanisms involved to enhance the understanding of the etiology. A total of 93 market-age Arbor Acres male broiler chickens were sampled and categorized into control (CON) and WB groups based on the evaluation of myopathic lesions. Liver samples were collected (n = 10 in each group) for histopathological evaluation and biochemical analyses. Results indicated that WB birds exhibited significantly higher plasma aspartate amino transferase, alkaline phosphatase, and gamma glutamyl transpeptidase activities. Histopathological changes in hydropic/fatty degeneration, inflammatory cell infiltration, intrahepatic hemorrhages, elevated myeloperoxidase activity, and overproduction of nitric oxide were observed in WB liver compared with CON, suggesting the occurrence of liver injury in birds affected by WB myopathy. The WB group showed increased levels of reactive oxygen species, oxidative products, as well as enhanced antioxidant capacities in the liver. These changes were associated with impaired mitochondria morphology and mitochondrial dysfunction. WB myopathy also induced mitochondria-mediated hepatic apoptosis by upregulating levels of caspases 3 and 9, altering the expressions of apoptotic B-cell lymphoma-2 family regulators, as well as increasing the release of cytochrome c. The activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell signaling enhanced the mRNA expression of downstream inflammatory mediators, contributing to the production of inflammatory cytokines in WB liver. Combined, these findings suggest that hepatic disorders may be conjoined with WB myopathy in broiler chickens and indicating systemic physiological disparities, and other metabolic changes accompanying this myopathy need further assessment.

Influence of Woody Breast Myopathy on Sarcomere Length and Tensile Strength in Commercial Broiler Pectoralis major Muscle

Woody breast syndrome is characterized by degenerative changes at the muscle fiber level and accumulation of connective tissue between the fibers. This study explored effects of the syndrome on muscle properties by focusing on a comparison of the sarcomere lengths between normal and woody breast muscles, including cranial and middle parts, surface and deeper layers, electrically stimulated and nonstimulated muscles, and their combinations. Tensile strengths longitudinally and transversally to the muscle fiber direction in the cranial and middle parts of the muscles were determined. The overall sarcomere lengths of woody breasts were longer than normal muscles (1.93 μ m vs. 1.88 μm; P &lt; 0.05). The surface layer had overall longer sarcomere lengths than the deeper layer (cranial surface vs. cranial deeper layer: 1.97 vs. 1.89 μ m; middle surface vs. middle deeper layer: 1.93 vs.1.84 μ m; P &lt; 0.05). Compared with normal breast muscles, woody breast muscles had longer sarcomeres in the surface layer; however, sarcomere length did not differ in the deeper layer. Electrically stimulated chicken breasts generally had longer sarcomere lengths (2.00 vs. 1.82 μm; P &lt; 0.001). There was no significant difference in tensile strength between normal and focal woody breast (mild local lesion, usually in the cranial end) samples when fiber direction or sample location was studied (P &gt; 0.05), but there was a clear difference between normal and focal versus diffuse (severe woody breast lesion throughout the muscle) samples (P &lt; 0.001). Tensile strength was much greater in diffuse woody breast muscles when extended longitudinally or transversely to the fiber direction. In conclusion, although this study did not show sarcomere lengths in living muscle, it suggests an imbalance in sarcomere lengths in different parts of the breast muscle, which may induce a reduction in the functionality and strength of the muscle.

Characterization of Collagen Structure in Normal, Wooden Breast and Spaghetti Meat Chicken Fillets by FTIR Microspectroscopy and Histology

Recently, two chicken breast fillet abnormalities, termed Wooden Breast (WB) and Spaghetti Meat (SM), have become a challenge for the chicken meat industry. The two abnormalities share some overlapping morphological features, including myofiber necrosis, intramuscular fat deposition, and collagen fibrosis, but display very different textural properties. WB has a hard, rigid surface, while the SM has a soft and stringy surface. Connective tissue is affected in both WB and SM, and accordingly, this study's objective was to investigate the major component of connective tissue, collagen. The collagen structure was compared with normal (NO) fillets using histological methods and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) microspectroscopy and imaging. The histology analysis demonstrated an increase in the amount of connective tissue in the chicken abnormalities, particularly in the perimysium. The WB displayed a mixture of thin and thick collagen fibers, whereas the collagen fibers in SM were thinner, fewer, and shorter. For both, the collagen fibers were oriented in multiple directions. The FTIR data showed that WB contained more β-sheets than the NO and the SM fillets, whereas SM fillets expressed the lowest mature collagen fibers. This insight into the molecular changes can help to explain the underlying causes of the abnormalities.

Physical, Chemical and Histological Characterization of Pectoralis major Muscle of Broilers Affected by Wooden Breast Myopathy

This study aimed to characterize the effects of wooden breast myopathy (WBM) on quality of broiler chicken breast meat. Normal samples (absence of myopathy), moderate-degree samples (hardness only in one area of the breast fillet) and severe-degree samples (hardness throughout the breast fillet) were classified. In macroscopic analysis, the pectoral muscle affected by the WBM showed, in general, pale color with stiff, irregular and reddish regions (suffusions and petechiae), with the presence of white striations. In microscopic analysis, the myopathy was characterized by loss of the polygonal aspect of the muscle fibers. Samples with moderate degree of the myopathy showed greater (p = 0.0266) water retention capacity. There was an increase (p = 0.004) in total collagen concentration in samples from the severe-degree group 0.29% in normal samples to 0.43 and 0.48% in samples from moderate- and severe-degree groups, respectively. Samples of chicken breast affected by the severe-degree WBM showed lower (p < 0.0001) myofibrillar fragmentation index (64.51) and lower (p = 0.0002) fat concentration (2.17%) than normal chicken samples (80.45 and 3.79%, respectively). Samples affected by WBM are larger and heavier and present poorer physical quality when compared to normal chicken meat. Histologically it is possible to observe loss of the polygonal aspect of muscle fibers.

Effect of LTLT heat treatment on cathepsin B and L activities and denaturation of myofibrillar proteins of pork

The aim was to study biophysical and chemical changes during low-temperature long-time (LTLT) heat treatment of pork by measuring cathepsin B+L activity, surface hydrophobicity of myofibrils, particle size of myofibrils and effect on meat toughness as indicated by Allo-Kramer shear force. Longissimus thoracis et lumborum muscles were divided into large pieces, vacuum packaged and cooked in water baths at 53, 58, 63, 68 and 73 °C for 1, 8 and 24 h. The results showed that the meat toughness was markedly lower at temperatures of 53 °C and 58 °C and decreased with increasing holding time. Myofibrillar surface hydrophobicity increased with temperature, but not with time, indicating aggregation and/or gelation phenomena took place. Treatments with the lowest shear force values generally had smaller particles and were associated with high cathepsin B+L activity. A mechanism by which these cathepsins might affect the aggregation dynamics and change the mechanical properties of meat is proposed.

Effect of high intensity ultrasound on the gelation properties of wooden breast meat with different NaCl contents

The current study was conducted to investigate the effect of different high intensity ultrasound (HIU) amplitudes on the gelation properties of wooden breast (WB) meat batter prepared with 1% and 2% NaCl. Results indicated that HIU effectively enhanced the water holding capacity (WHC) of WB at 1% and 2% NaCl, and enabled WB to obtain better WHC than the normal. The thermal stability of WB was affected by HIU, and the difference of G'_end between WB and normal was reduced at 2% NaCl. HIU continuously decreased the particle size of WB at 1% NaCl, whereas opposite trends were observed at 2% NaCl. In addition, HIU transformed α-helix structure of WB to random coil at 1% NaCl, whereas to β-sheet structure at 2% NaCl. Overall, HIU can be utilized to improve the gelation properties of WB meat with the potential to produce low- and common-salt gel-type meat products.

Use of image analysis to identify woody breast characteristics in 8-week-old broiler carcasses

Woody breast (WB) condition causes significant economic losses to the global poultry industry, and the lack of an objective and fast tool to identify this myopathy is a contributing factor. The aim of this study was to determine if there are broiler carcass conformation changes that can be used to identify WB characteristics using image analysis. Images of 8-wk-old male broiler carcasses (n = 544) of high breast-yielding strains were captured before evisceration, which were processed and analyzed using ImageJ software. Measurements were as follows: M0, breast length; M1, breast width in the cranial region; M2, one-fifth of the breast length starting at the tip of keel; M3, breast width at the end of M2; M4, angle formed at the tip of keel and extending to outer points of M3; M5, area of the triangle formed by M3 and lines generated by M4; M6, area of the breast above M3; and M7, M6 minus M5. Ratios of these measurements were also considered. Whole breast fillets were scored for WB severity based on tactile assessment and compression analysis to correlate them. Spearman's correlation coefficient (r_s) between WB scores and compression force was highly significant (r_s = 0.83, P < 0.01). Measurements M4 and M3 as well as ratios M9 (M3/M2) and M11 (M1/M0) had the highest correlation to the WB score (r_s ≥ 0.70; P < 0.01) and compression force (r_s ≥ 0.64; P < 0.01). The best validated model (generalized [Gen.] R² = 0.60) to predict WB included M1, M2, and M3. Using this model, 84% of broiler carcasses were correctly classified as WB or normal with a sensitivity of 82% to detect affected samples. Alternatively, M4 and M6 as well as ratios M9 and M11 could be considered as predictors in different models (Gen. R² ≥ 0.56). The same predictors were significant to estimate compression force (Gen. R² ≥ 0.49). These data support the use of image analysis to predict WB condition in broiler carcasses. The potential integration of these image measurements into commercial in-line vision grading systems would allow processors to sort broiler carcasses by WB severity.

Nutritional Properties and Oxidative Indices of Broiler Breast Meat Affected by Wooden Breast Abnormality

Wooden breast (WB) abnormality adversely impacts the quality of chicken meat and has been linked with oxidative stress. In this study, breast samples were taken from carcasses of 7-week-old Ross 308 broilers 20-min and 24-h postmortem. Five WB and seven non-WB control samples were assigned based on palpatory hardness (non-WB = no unusual characteristics and WB = focal or diffused hardness). WB exhibited lower contents of protein and the amino acids, i.e., isoleucine, leucine and valine, lighter surface color, lower shear force, greater drip loss and altered mineral profiles (p ≤ 0.05). Despite no difference in lipid oxidation, a greater degree of protein oxidation was found in the WB meat (p ≤ 0.05). Absolute transcript abundances of superoxide dismutase, hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha and pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 were greater in WB (p ≤ 0.05), whereas lactate dehydrogenase A expression was lower in WB (p ≤ 0.05). The findings support an association between oxidative stress and the altered nutritional and technological properties of chicken meat in WB.

Effect of Woody Breast Condition on Instrumental Texture Characteristics of Poultry Deli Loaves

The use of broiler breast fillets affected by the woody breast (WB) condition in processed poultry products couldbe a feasible solution to this meat quality problem. This study assessed the impact of utilizing broiler breast fillets at differ-ent degrees of WB severity and percentages on instrumental texture characteristics of deli loaves. Breast fillets (n = 270) were collected from broiler carcasses and sorted based on palpation assessment in 3 WB categories (normal [NOR], mild [MIL], and severe [SEV]). Nine treatments of deli loaves were prepared from cubed portions in each of 3 replications: 100% NOR (T1), 67% NOR + 33% MIL (T2), 67% NOR + 33% SEV (T3), 33% NOR + 67% MIL (T4), 33% NOR + 67% SEV (T5), 100% MIL (T6), 67% MIL + 33% SEV (T7), 33% MIL + 67% SEV (T8), and 100% SEV (T9). Cooked deli loaves were subjected to texture profile analysis, cook loss, instrumental color, and dimensional modifications. Hardness of deli loaves increased (P &lt; 0.05), whereas cohesiveness values decreased (P &lt; 0.05), as WB severity increased in the meat added into the product formulation when compared with NOR samples and excluding treatments T2 through T4. The use of SEV fillets at 100% (T9) or mixtures of MIL and SEV fillets (T7 and T8) yielded nonuniform deli loaves with different color parameters and higher levels of cook loss (&gt;13%), coupled with reductions in diameter (&gt;8%) and length (&gt;5%), comparedto NOR samples (P &lt; 0.05). These results suggest that the negative effects of WB on quality and yield characteristics are not minimized by the preparation of this formed product when using high proportions of WB meat. Thus, broiler breast fillets affected by the WB condition may be used at relatively low percentages combined with NOR fillets as an option in commercial chicken deli loaf formulations.

Instrumental texture analysis of chicken patties prepared with broiler breast fillets exhibiting woody breast characteristics

Potential applications of chicken meat with the woody breast (WB) condition in further processed products could provide processors with alternatives to deal with this meat quality problem. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of the use of broiler breast fillets at varying degrees of WB severity and proportions on instrumental texture characteristics of chicken patties. A total of 54 breast fillets were collected from broilers processed as per commercial practices, previously classified based on tactile evaluation in 3 WB categories (normal [NOR]; mild [MIL], and severe [SEV]). Instrumental compression analysis was performed to validate subjective scores. Nine treatments with 6 replicates of chicken patties were prepared: 100% NOR (T₁), 67% NOR + 33% MIL (T₂), 67% NOR + 33% SEV (T₃), 33% NOR + 67% MIL (T₄), 33% NOR + 67% SEV (T₅), 100% MIL (T₆), 67% MIL + 33% SEV (T₇), 33% MIL + 67% SEV (T₈), and 100% SEV (T₉). Instrumental texture profile analysis along with cook loss, color, and dimensional changes was evaluated in cooked patties. Compared with normal samples and excluding treatments T₂ and T₄, hardness, springiness, and chewiness values of chicken patties decreased (P < 0.05) as WB severity increased in the meat incorporated into the formulation. Patties prepared using mixtures of MIL and SEV fillets (T₇ and T₈) including T₉ had higher levels of cook loss (>26%, P < 0.05) accompanied by significant reductions in diameter (>16%, P < 0.05) and distinguishable color changes (ΔE∗_ab > 2) than normal patties. These data suggest that the potential use of WB meat in chicken patties is associated with the degree of WB severity and the incorporation rate. The inclusion of WB fillets at high levels into this product is not recommended owing to their poor functionality. However, feasible mixtures of normal breast fillets with those affected by WB myopathy at relatively low proportions could be considered by processors as an alternative in commercial chicken patty formulations.

Effect of meat temperature on moisture loss, water properties, and protein profiles of broiler pectoralis major with the woody breast condition

The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of meat temperature on moisture loss, muscle water properties, and protein profiles in broiler pectoralis major with the severe woody breast (WB) condition. Broiler breast samples were collected from a commercial plant and sorted into normal, WB, and pale, soft, and exudative (PSE). Temperature treatments included 23°C, 40°C, 53°C, 57°C, 68°C, and 90°C based on denaturation of major muscle protein types during heating. Moisture loss was estimated with weight changes, water properties were measured with time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance measurements, and protein profiles were determined with SDS electrophoresis gel. There were no differences in moisture loss between 3 groups at meat temperature 23°C, 40°C, and 57°C. Moisture loss of WB samples was greater than normal and PSE at either 68°C or 90°C; however, it was the least at 53°C. Only close changing trend was noted between the intramyofibrillar water (T₂₁) reduction and moisture loss. The extramyofibrillar (T₂₂) water content and reduction in WB meat during heating were consistent greater, and electrophoretic profiles differed among 3 muscle conditions. Data suggest that greater reductions in intramyofibrillar and extramyofibrillar water are responsible for the increased moisture loss in WB meat at higher temperature.

Wooden breast myopathy on broiler breast fillets affects quality and consumer preference

INTRODUCTION

The emergence of myopathies such as wooden breast in the poultry industry generally associated with the fast development of the breast muscle of broilers has provided changes in the morphological structure of muscle tissues, as well as problems of meat qualitative attributes. The aim of this study was to evaluate physical, chemical, qualitative, and sensorial attributes of broiler fillets associated with severity levels of wooden breast (WB) myopathy in a poultry slaughterhouse.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Three hundred fillets in a poultry slaughterhouse were classified into three severity levels: normal (100 samples), moderate (100 samples), and severe (100 samples).

RESULTS

After identification, classification, and description of changes, fillets with a severe WB level presented higher levels of red (a*), yellow (b*), and final pH. The lowest shear force and the highest myofibrillar fragmentation index were observed in fillets with a severe level when compared with normal fillets. The collagen content increased according to severity level. Tasters better evidenced the characteristic taste of chicken meat when tasting fillets with a severe WB level when compared with normal and moderate fillets. The succulence and preference of the Brazilian testers increased according to the severity level of the myopathy.

CONCLUSION

In general, fillets with moderate and severe WB myopathy were affected not only in appearance but also in qualitative, physical, chemical, and sensory characteristics.

Differentially expressed marker genes and glycogen levels in pectoralis major of Ross308 broilers with wooden breast syndrome indicates stress, inflammation and hypoxic conditions

The occurrence of wooden breast (WB) in broiler production is increasing, but onset of its development is only described in part. In this study, we determined the regulation of marker genes related to oxidative stress in Ross308 broilers categorized as no-, mild- or severe-WB, on days 21 and 30 of production. The biochemical parameters, lactate dehydrogenase and pro- and macro-glycogen, were also determined. On day 21, breast meat from birds affected severely by WB had increased mRNA abundances of heat-shock protein 70, heme-oxygenase 1, cyclooxygenase 2, tumor necrosis factor 1, and hypoxia inducible factors as well as higher pH and lower dry matter contents. On day 30, breast meat from both mild and severely affected birds had increased mRNA for heme oxygenase 1, lactate dehydrogenase, and hypoxia inducible factor. Moreover, pro- and micro-glycogen, as well as the total pool of glycogen, were decreased compared with the non-WB birds. In conclusion, this study indicates oxidative stress, inflammation and hypoxic conditions in WB.

A review on the woody breast condition, detection methods, and product utilization in the contemporary poultry industry

In recent years, the global poultry industry has been facing increasing and challenging myopathies such as the woody breast (WB) condition that has caused significant economic losses. Even though the etiological causes of WB myopathy are still unknown or partially understood, the intensive genetic selection for rapid-growth rates and high yields in broilers may be the main factor associated with the development of this abnormality. The severity of this anomaly and its incidence rates are associated with fast-growing and heavier broilers, especially with those from high breast yielding strains. Such WB myopathy is primarily characterized by a notorious hardness in broiler breast muscles, which exhibit morphometric and histopathological alterations coupled with physicochemical abnormalities that result in undesired sensory, nutritional, and technological properties. In this negative context, although scientists are trying to solve or reduce the prevalence of this meat quality problem, the poultry industry needs noncontact and rapid in-line methods for WB detection at the fillet and/or carcass level that could help to establish automated objective grading or sorting systems according to its severity. Another need is the development and selection of profitable alternatives for the utilization of WB meat once poultry carcasses or deboned fillets affected by this abnormality are objectively detected and sorted. Indeed, there is a need for studies to expand the industrial applications of WB meat in further processed products, optimizing the incorporation of this affected chicken meat based on sensorial, technological, and nutritional profile evaluations. Even though a better understanding of the contribution of genetic and nongenetic factors to the development of growth-related myopathies can be the main strategy to mitigate their negative effects, the poultry industry could benefit from meeting the aforementioned needs.

Research Note: Texture characteristics of wooden breast fillets deboned at different postmortem times

The study aimed to understand whether deboning time contributes to the altered texture attributes of wooden breast (WB) fillets. To this purpose, 30 unaffected (NORM) and 30 severely affected (WB) carcasses were selected at 15 min postmortem (PM) and allotted into treatments with different deboning times: A (5 NORM + 5 WB; right fillets deboned at 15 min PM), B (5 NORM + 5 WB; right fillets deboned at 3 h PM), and C (5 NORM + 5 WB; right fillets deboned at 6 h PM). Left fillets from each carcass were deboned at 24 h PM. Multiple instrumental texture analyses were performed on the cranial-middle portion of the Pectoralis major muscles. Irrespective of deboning time, all fillets were subjected to a single 30% compression in the raw state at 24 h PM. All fillets were cooked at 24 h PM and subjected to shear force assessments at 48 h PM using blunt Meullenet-Owens razor shear, Meullenet-Owens razor shear, and Warner-Bratzler shear force. Using an ANOVA mixed model, deboning time was evaluated as a fixed effect within muscle condition (sampling session and carcass ID as random effects). Compression force assessment of raw meat at 24 h PM showed that WB fillets exhibited the greatest hardness when they were deboned at 6 h PM (15 min = 35.4 N; 3 h = 30.9 N; 6 h = 48.0 N; 24 h = 30.6 N; P < 0.05). Differently, deboning time had no effect (P > 0.05) on raw compression force values in NORM fillets. In cooked NORM fillets, shear force values were the greatest in fillets deboned at 15 min, and shear force gradually declined with deboning time through 24 h PM. On the contrary, no changes (P > 0.05) in shear values due to different deboning times were observed in cooked WB meat regardless of shear method. These results suggest that early PM changes in breast muscles and their influence on meat texture are different between normal and WB fillets.

Current Status of Poultry Meat Abnormalities

Over the past decade, the poultry industry has faced an increasing occurrence of growth-related muscular abnormalities that mainly affect fast-growing genotypes selected for their production performances (high growth rate and breast yield). These abnormalities, termed white striping (WS), wooden breast (WB) and spaghetti meat (SM), primarily affect the superficial portion of pectoralis major muscles. Despite their distinctive phenotypes, WS, WB, and SM conditions entail common histological features, i.e., they might share common causative mechanisms underpinning their occurrence. Meat affected by growth-related abnormalities is harmless for human nutrition since no specific biological or chemical hazards have been found to be related to its consumption. However, WS, WB, and SM abnormalities negatively affect both quality traits and technological properties of raw and processed meat, causing relevant economic damages in the poultry industry. This paper aims to provide an update about the current status of poultry meat abnormalities, giving useful insights about their impact on meat quality, the possible causative mechanisms, methods for mitigation, and future perspectives.