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Gowthaman V, Singh SD, Dhama K, Ramakrishnan MA, Malik YPS, Gopala Krishna Murthy TR, Chitra R, Munir M. Co-infection of Newcastle disease virus genotype XIII with low pathogenic avian influenza exacerbates clinical outcome of Newcastle disease in vaccinated layer poultry flocks. Virusdisease 2019; 30:441-452. [PMID: 31803812 DOI: 10.1007/s13337-019-00533-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Newcastle disease (ND) and avian influenza (AI) are economically important infectious diseases of poultry. Sometime, concomitant secondary viral/or bacterial infections significantly alters the pathobiology of ND and AI in poultry. As of now, the disease patterns and dynamics of co-infections caused by ND virus (NDV, genotype XIII) and Low Pathogenic AI viruses (LPAI, H9N2) are explicitly elusive. Thus, we examined the clinicopathological disease conditions due to these two economically important viruses to understand the complex disease outcomes by virus-virus interactions in vaccinated flocks. The findings of clinicopathological and molecular investigations carried on 37 commercial ND vaccinated poultry flocks revealed simultaneous circulation of NDV and AIV in same flock/bird. Further, molecular characterization of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes confirmed that all the identified AIVs were of low pathogenicity H9N2 subtype and fusion (F) gene analysis of detected NDVs belong to NDV class II, genotype XIII, a virulent type. The NDV and H9N2 alone or co-infected flocks (NDV + LPAI) exhibit clinical signs and lesions similar to that of virulent NDV except the degree of severity, which was higher in H9N2-NDV co-infected flocks. Additionally, avian pathogenic E. coli and mycoplasma infections were detected in majority of the ailing/dead birds from the co-infected flocks during progression of the clinical disease. Overall, the findings highlight the multi-factorial disease complexity in commercial poultry and suggest the importance of NDV genotype XIII in intensifying the clinical disease in vaccinated birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Gowthaman
- 1Avian Diseases Section, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, 243 122 India
- 2Present Address: Poultry Disease Diagnosis and Surveillance Laboratory, Veterinary College and Research Institute Campus, Namakkal, 637 002 India
| | - S D Singh
- 1Avian Diseases Section, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, 243 122 India
| | - K Dhama
- 1Avian Diseases Section, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, 243 122 India
| | - M A Ramakrishnan
- 3Division of Virology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Mukteswar, Uttarakhand 263138 India
| | - Y P S Malik
- 4Division of Biological Standardisation, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, 243 122 India
| | - T R Gopala Krishna Murthy
- 2Present Address: Poultry Disease Diagnosis and Surveillance Laboratory, Veterinary College and Research Institute Campus, Namakkal, 637 002 India
| | - R Chitra
- 5Department of Animal Husbandry Statistics and Computer Applications, Veterinary College and Research Institute, Namakkal, 637 002 India
| | - M Munir
- 6Department of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YG UK
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2
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Ren T, Dormitorio TV, Qiao M, Huang TS, Weese J. N-halamine incorporated antimicrobial nonwoven fabrics for use against avian influenza virus. Vet Microbiol 2018; 218:78-83. [PMID: 29685225 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2018.03.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Revised: 03/30/2018] [Accepted: 03/31/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Airborne pathogens are one of the most common avenues leading to poultry diseases. Preventing the avian influenza (AI) virus from entering the chicken hatchery house is critical for reducing the spread and transmission of AI disease. Many studies have investigated the incorporation of antimicrobials into air filters to prevent viruses from entering the indoor environment. N-halamines are one of the most effective antimicrobial agents against a broad spectrum of microorganisms. In this study, 1-chloro-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-4-imidazolidinone (MC, a variety of N-halamine) was coated on nonwoven fabrics to give the fabric antimicrobial activity against the AI virus. Results showed that MC exhibited potent antiviral activity either in suspension or in the air. Higher concentrations of MC completely inactivated AI viruses and disrupted their RNA, preventing them from being detected by the real time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay. Coating the fabrics with MC resulted in remarkably reduced presence of AI virus on the MC-treated fabric in a short period of time. Furthermore, aerosolized AI viruses were completely inactivated when they passed through filters coated with the MC compound. In addition, MC is not volatile and does not release any gaseous chlorine. The active chlorine in the MC compound is stable, and the coating procedure is straightforward and inexpensive. Therefore, this study validates a novel approach to reducing airborne pathogens in the poultry production environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tian Ren
- Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States.
| | - Teresa V Dormitorio
- Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States.
| | - Mingyu Qiao
- Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States.
| | - Tung-Shi Huang
- Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States.
| | - Jean Weese
- Department of Poultry Science, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, 36849, United States.
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Pantin-Jackwood MJ, Costa-Hurtado M, Miller PJ, Afonso CL, Spackman E, Kapczynski DR, Shepherd E, Smith D, Swayne DE. Experimental co-infections of domestic ducks with a virulent Newcastle disease virus and low or highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses. Vet Microbiol 2015; 177:7-17. [PMID: 25759292 PMCID: PMC4388808 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Infections with avian influenza viruses (AIV) of low and high pathogenicity (LP and HP) and Newcastle disease virus (NDV) are commonly reported in domestic ducks in many parts of the world. However, it is not clear if co-infections with these viruses affect the severity of the diseases they produce, the amount of virus shed, and transmission of the viruses. In this study we infected domestic ducks with a virulent NDV virus (vNDV) and either a LPAIV or a HPAIV by giving the viruses individually, simultaneously, or sequentially two days apart. No clinical signs were observed in ducks infected or co-infected with vNDV and LPAIV, but co-infection decreased the number of ducks shedding vNDV and the amount of virus shed (P<0.01) at 4 days post inoculation (dpi). Co-infection did not affect the number of birds shedding LPAIV, but more LPAIV was shed at 2 dpi (P<0.0001) from ducks inoculated with only LPAIV compared to ducks co-infected with vNDV. Ducks that received the HPAIV with the vNDV simultaneously survived fewer days (P<0.05) compared to the ducks that received the vNDV two days before the HPAIV. Co-infection also reduced transmission of vNDV to naïve contact ducks housed with the inoculated ducks. In conclusion, domestic ducks can become co-infected with vNDV and LPAIV with no effect on clinical signs but with reduction of virus shedding and transmission. These findings indicate that infection with one virus can interfere with replication of another, modifying the pathogenesis and transmission of the viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary J Pantin-Jackwood
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA.
| | - Mar Costa-Hurtado
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Patti J Miller
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Claudio L Afonso
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Erica Spackman
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Darrell R Kapczynski
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Eric Shepherd
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - Diane Smith
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
| | - David E Swayne
- Exotic and Emerging Avian Viral Diseases Unit, Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Athens, GA 30605, USA
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Grund C, Steglich C, Huthmann E, Beer M, Mettenleiter TC, Römer-Oberdörfer A. Avian paramyoxvirus-8 immunization reduces viral shedding after homologous APMV-8 challenge but fails to protect against Newcastle disease. Virol J 2014; 11:179. [PMID: 25297904 PMCID: PMC4203933 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422x-11-179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Protection against infection by Newcastle disease virus (NDV), also designated as avian paramyxovirus subtype-1 (APMV-1), is mediated by immune responses to the two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) and fusion (F) protein. Thus, a chimeric APMV-1 based vaccine that encodes APMV-8 HN- and F-proteins and expresses the hemagglutinin of avian influenza virus (AIV) H5N1, is able to protect against HPAIV H5N1 but fails to protect against NDV [PLoS One8:e72530, 2013]. However, it is unclear whether avirulent APMV-subtypes, like APMV-8 can induce subtype-specific immunity and protect from a homologous challenge. FINDINGS APMV-8 infections of 3- and 6-weeks-old specific pathogen free (SPF)-chickens did not induce any clinical signs but was associated with virus shedding for up to 6 days. Viral replication was only detected in oropharyngeal- and never in cloacal swabs. Upon reinfection with homologous APMV-8, viral shedding was restricted to day 2 and in contrast to naive SPF-chickens, only RNA but no infectious virus was recovered. No protection was induced against virulent NDV challenge, although morbidity and mortality was delayed in APMV-8 primed chickens. This lack of protection is in line with a lack of reactivity of APMV-8 specific sera to APMV-1 HN-protein: Neither by hemagglutin-inhibition (HI) test nor immunoblot analyses, cross-reactivity was detected, despite reactivity to internal proteins. CONCLUSIONS Immune responses mounted during asymptomatic APMV-8 infection limit secondary infection against homologues reinfection and facilitates a delay in the onset of disease in a subtype independent manner but is unable to protect against Newcastle disease, a heterologous APMV-subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Grund
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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5
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Muzyka D, Pantin-Jackwood M, Stegniy B, Rula O, Bolotin V, Stegniy A, Gerilovych A, Shutchenko P, Stegniy M, Koshelev V, Maiorova K, Tkachenko S, Muzyka N, Usova L, Afonso CL. Wild bird surveillance for avian paramyxoviruses in the Azov-black sea region of Ukraine (2006 to 2011) reveals epidemiological connections with Europe and Africa. Appl Environ Microbiol 2014; 80:5427-38. [PMID: 24973063 PMCID: PMC4136112 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00733-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the existence of 10 avian paramyxovirus (APMV) serotypes, very little is known about the distribution, host species, and ecological factors affecting virus transmission. To better understand the relationship among these factors, we conducted APMV wild bird surveillance in regions of Ukraine suspected of being intercontinental (north to south and east to west) flyways. Surveillance for APMV was conducted in 6,735 wild birds representing 86 species and 8 different orders during 2006 to 2011 through different seasons. Twenty viruses were isolated and subsequently identified as APMV-1 (n = 9), APMV-4 (n = 4), APMV-6 (n = 3), and APMV-7 (n = 4). The highest isolation rate occurred during the autumn migration (0.61%), with viruses isolated from mallards, teals, dunlins, and a wigeon. The rate of isolation was lower during winter (December to March) (0.32%), with viruses isolated from ruddy shelducks, mallards, white-fronted geese, and a starling. During spring migration, nesting, and postnesting (April to August) no APMV strains were isolated out of 1,984 samples tested. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of four APMV-1 and two APMV-4 viruses showed that one APMV-1 virus belonging to class 1 was epidemiologically linked to viruses from China, three class II APMV-1 viruses were epidemiologically connected with viruses from Nigeria and Luxembourg, and one APMV-4 virus was related to goose viruses from Egypt. In summary, we have identified the wild bird species most likely to be infected with APMV, and our data support possible intercontinental transmission of APMVs by wild birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denys Muzyka
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Mary Pantin-Jackwood
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Borys Stegniy
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Oleksandr Rula
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Vitaliy Bolotin
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Anton Stegniy
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Anton Gerilovych
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Pavlo Shutchenko
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Maryna Stegniy
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Vasyl Koshelev
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Klavdii Maiorova
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Semen Tkachenko
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Nataliia Muzyka
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Larysa Usova
- National Scientific Center Institute of Experimental and Clinical Veterinary Medicine, Kharkiv, Ukraine
| | - Claudio L Afonso
- Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, USDA, Athens, Georgia, USA
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6
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França M, Howerth EW, Carter D, Byas A, Poulson R, Afonso CL, Stallknecht DE. Co-infection of mallards with low-virulence Newcastle disease virus and low-pathogenic avian influenza virus. Avian Pathol 2014; 43:96-104. [PMID: 24467249 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2013.876530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Waterfowl are considered the natural reservoir of low-virulence Newcastle disease viruses (loNDVs) and low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIVs). The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of co-infections with loNDV and LPAIV on the infectivity and excretion of these viruses in mallards. One-month-old mallards were inoculated intranasally with 10(6) median embryo infectious doses of a wild-bird-origin loNDV and A/Mallard/MN/199106/99 (H3N8) LPAIV on the same day or received the LPAIV 2 or 5 days after loNDV inoculation. All mallards became infected with both viruses based on detection of seroconversion and viral shedding. Co-infection resulted in a higher number of cloacal swabs detected positive for LPAIV and a lower number of cloacal swabs detected positive for loNDV in some groups, although differences between groups were not statistically significant. Co-infection did not affect replication of LPAIV in epithelial cells of the lower intestine and bursa of Fabricius. In summary, the results of this study indicate that co-infection with LPAIV and loNDV does not affect the ability of mallards to be infected with either virus although it may have minimal effects on patterns (source and timing) of viral shedding.
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Affiliation(s)
- M França
- a Poultry Diagnostic and Research Center, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine , The University of Georgia , Athens , Georgia , USA
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7
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Umali DV, Ito H, Katoh H, Ito T. Surveillance of avian paramyxovirus in migratory waterfowls in the San-in region of western Japan from 2006 to 2012. J Vet Med Sci 2013; 76:423-30. [PMID: 24284974 PMCID: PMC4013370 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.13-0539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Relatively little is known about the distribution of avian paramyxoviruses
(APMVs) among wild birds in Japan. Surveillance of APMV in migratory waterfowl was
conducted in the San-in region of western Japan during winters of 2006 to 2012. A total of
16 avian paramyxoviruses consisting of 3 lentogenic Newcastle disease viruses (NDVs), 12
APMV-4 and 1 APMV-8 were isolated from 1,967 wild-bird fecal samples. The results show
that NDV and APMV-4 are relatively widely distributed among wild waterfowl that migrate to
Japan from northern regions. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that there was no genetic
relationship between the isolates from wild birds and domestic poultry in Japan. However,
surveillance of APMVs in wild waterfowl needs to be conducted due to the pathogenic
potential of these isolates in domestic poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis V Umali
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of the Philippines Los Baños, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines
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Gordy JT, Jones CA, Rue J, Crawford PC, Levy JK, Stallknecht DE, Tripp RA, Tompkins SM. Surveillance of feral cats for influenza A virus in north central Florida. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2012; 6:341-7. [PMID: 22212818 PMCID: PMC3323745 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-2659.2011.00325.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza and the recent pandemic H1N1 viruses to domestic cats and other felids creates concern because of the morbidity and mortality associated with human infections as well as disease in the infected animals. Experimental infections have demonstrated transmission of influenza viruses in cats. OBJECTIVES An epidemiologic survey of feral cats was conducted to determine their exposure to influenza A virus. METHODS Feral cat sera and oropharyngeal and rectal swabs were collected from November 2008 through July 2010 in Alachua County, FL and were tested for evidence of influenza A virus infection by virus isolation, PCR, and serological assay. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS No virus was isolated from any of 927 cats examined using MDCK cell or embryonated chicken egg culture methods, nor was viral RNA detected by RT-PCR in 200 samples tested. However, 0.43% of cats tested antibody positive for influenza A by commercial ELISA. These results suggest feral cats in this region are at minimal risk for influenza A virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- James T. Gordy
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Cheryl A. Jones
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Joanne Rue
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | | | - Julie K. Levy
- Maddie’s Shelter Medicine Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | | | - Ralph A. Tripp
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
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Miyoshi-Akiyama T, Akasaka Y, Oogane T, Kondo Y, Matsushita T, Funatogawa K, Kirikae T. Development and evaluation of a line probe assay for rapid typing of influenza viruses and detection of the H274Y mutation. J Virol Methods 2012; 185:276-80. [PMID: 22796550 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2012] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Adequate treatment of influenza requires identification of viral type as well as detection of mutation(s) conferring drug resistance. Reverse hybridization-based line probe assays (LiPA) can be performed using several probes immobilized on nitrocellulose, strips enabling LiPA to determine simultaneously viral subtypes and detect the presence or absence of the H274Y mutation, which confers oseltamivir resistance of H1N1 influenza viruses. LiPA was developed for identification of H1N1 influenza virus subtypes (pandemic 2009 and seasonal types), as well as H3N2 and B subtypes, and to detect the H274Y mutation. The diagnostic capability of this assay was evaluated using cultured virus isolates as well as nasal swabs obtained from patients suspected of infection with influenza. In examining 354 cultured virus isolates, the LiPA showed 100% specificity for virus typing and 99% specificity for detecting the H274Y mutation. In 49 nasal swabs from a clinical study, the assay showed 100% specificity for virus typing and 88% specificity for detecting the absence of the H274Y mutation, although none of these swabs was PCR-positive for this mutation. These findings indicate that LiPA for influenza viruses may be used to monitor viral trends during the influenza season.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tohru Miyoshi-Akiyama
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Research Institute, National Center for Global Health and Medicine, Shinjuku, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan.
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El Zowalaty ME, Abin M, Chander Y, Redig PT, Goyal SM. Improved Method for the Isolation and Sub-Typing of Avian Influenza Viruses from Oropharyngeal Samples of Ducks. Avian Dis 2011; 55:439-42. [DOI: 10.1637/9677-020311-reg.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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11
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Jindal N, Chander Y, Primus A, Redig PT, Goyal SM. Isolation and molecular characterization of Newcastle disease viruses from raptors. Avian Pathol 2010; 39:441-5. [DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2010.517249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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12
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Wu H, Williams K, Singh SR, Scissum-Gunn K, Singh NK, Teresa D, Giambrone JJ. Integrity of a recombinant hemagglutinin protein of an avian influenza virus. Biotechnol Lett 2009; 31:1511-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s10529-009-0047-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2009] [Revised: 05/19/2009] [Accepted: 05/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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