Advances in the Development of Biomaterials for Endotoxin Adsorption in Sepsis

Rationalisation of the purification process for a phage active pharmaceutical ingredient

The resurgence of phage therapy, once abandoned in the early 20th century in part due to issues related to the purification process and stability, is spurred by the global threat of antibiotic resistance. Engineering advances have enabled more precise separation unit operations, improving overall purification efficiency. The present review discusses the physicochemical properties of impurities commonly found in a phage lysate, e.g., contaminants, phage-related impurities, and propagation-related impurities. Differences in phages and bacterial impurities properties are leveraged to elaborate a four-step phage purification process: clarification, capture and concentration, subsequent purification and polishing. Ultimately, a framework for rationalising the development of a purification process is proposed, considering three operational characteristics, i.e., scalability, transferability to various phages and duration. This guide facilitates the preselection of a sequence of unit operations, which can then be confronted with the expected impurities to validate the theoretical capacity of the process to purify the phage lysate.

Interfacial Interaction between Functionalization of Polysulfone Membrane Materials and Protein Adsorption

This study that modified polysulfone membranes with different end-group chemical functionalities were prepared using chemical synthesis methods and experimentally characterized. The molecular dynamics (MD) method were used to discuss the adsorption mechanism of proteins on functionalized modified polysulfone membrane materials from a molecular perspective, revealing the interactions between different functionalized membrane surfaces and protein adsorption. Theoretical analysis combined with basic experiments and MD simulations were used to explore the orientation and spatial conformational changes of protein adsorption at the molecular level. The results show that BSA exhibits different variability and adsorption characteristics on membranes with different functional group modifications. On hydrophobic membrane surfaces, BSA shows the least stable configuration stability, making it prone to nonspecific structural changes. In addition, surface charge effects lead to electrostatic repulsion for BSA and reduce the protein adsorption sites. These MD simulation results are consistent with experimental findings, providing new design ideas and support for modifying blood-compatible membrane materials.

Broad-Spectrum Clearance of Lipopolysaccharides from Blood Based on a Hemocompatible Dihistidine Polymer

Blood infection can release toxic bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPSs) into bloodstream, trigger a series of inflammatory reactions, and eventually lead to multiple organ dysfunction, irreversible shock, and even death, which seriously threatens human life and health. Herein, a functional block copolymer with excellent hemocompatibility is proposed to enable broad-spectrum clearance of LPSs from whole blood blindly before pathogen identification, facilitating timely rescue from sepsis. A dipeptide ligand of histidine-histidine (HH) was designed as the LPS binding unit, and poly[(trimethylamine N-oxide)-co-(histidine-histidine)], a functional block copolymer combining the LPS ligand of HH and a zwitterionic antifouling unit of trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), was then designed by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. The functional polymer achieved effective clearance of LPSs from solutions and whole blood in a broad-spectrum manner and had good antifouling and anti-interference properties and hemocompatibility. The proposed functional dihistidine polymer provides a novel strategy for achieving broad-spectrum clearance of LPSs, with potential applications in clinical blood purification.

The Use of Membranes (ST-100, oXiris, and M60) for Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy in a Child with Sepsis

Sepsis is a critical condition affecting patients worldwide. Systemic inflammatory response syndrome in sepsis contributes to organ dysfunction and mortality. The oXiris is a recently developed continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) hemofilter indicated for the adsorption of cytokines from the bloodstream. In our study, in a septic child, CRRT with three filters, including the oXiris hemofilter, resulted in a downregulation of inflammatory biomarkers and a reduction of vasopressors. Herein, we described the first report of such usage in septic children.

Targeting circulating high mobility group box-1 and histones by extracorporeal blood purification as an immunomodulation strategy against critical illnesses

Both high mobility group box-1 (HMGB1) and histones are major damage-associated molecular patterns (DAPMs) that mediate lethal systemic inflammation, activation of the complement and coagulation system, endothelial injury and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome in critical illnesses. Although accumulating evidence collectively shows that targeting HMGB1 or histones by their specific antibodies or inhibitors could significantly mitigate aberrant immune responses in multiple critically ill animal models, routine clinical use of such agents is still not recommended by any guideline. In contrast, extracorporeal blood purification, which has been widely used to replace dysfunctional organs and remove exogenous or endogenous toxins in intensive care units, may also exert an immunomodulatory effect by eliminating inflammatory mediators such as cytokines, endotoxin, HMGB1 and histones in patients with critical illnesses. In this review, we summarize the multiple immunopathological roles of HMGB1 and histones in mediating inflammation, immune thrombosis and organ dysfunction and discuss the rationale for the removal of these DAMPs using various hemofilters. The latest preclinical and clinical evidence for the use of extracorporeal blood purification to improve the clinical outcome of critically ill patients by targeting circulating HMGB1 and histones is also gathered.

Effect of Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy with the oXiris Hemofilter on Critically Ill Patients: A Narrative Review

Critically ill patients with sepsis and severe COVID-19 are commonly characterized by a dysregulated immune response and an acute kidney injury. Continuous renal replacement therapy (CRRT) is now proposed as a promising adjuvant therapy to treat these critically ill patients by removing cytokines, pathogen-associated molecular patterns, and damage-associated molecular patterns from the blood. Although multiple hemofilters, including high-cutoff membranes, the oXiris hemofilter, the CytoSorb hemoadsorption device, and the Toraymyxin hemoperfusion cartridge, have been used in current clinical practice, the use of the oXiris hemofilter in critically ill patients is of particular interest because it is the only kind of hemofilter that can provide renal replacement therapy, remove endotoxins, and adsorb cytokines simultaneously. During the past five years, a growing body of literature has shown that CRRT with the oXiris hemofilter can improve hemodynamics and organ function and can decrease cytokines and endotoxins in both septic and COVID-19 patients. Here, we performed a narrative review to describe the development history of the oXiris hemofilter and to discuss the therapeutic effect of oXiris-CRRT on critically ill patients by searching the PubMed, Web of Science, and clinicaltrials.gov databases for articles published from inception to 8 September 2022 (updated on 1 November) with an English language restriction. We also summarized the current knowledge on anticoagulation techniques and safety concerns when delivering oXiris-CRRT sessions.

Application of oXiris-continuous hemofiltration adsorption in patients with sepsis and septic shock: A single-centre experience in China

oXiris is a new, high-adsorption membrane filter in continuous hemofiltration adsorption to reduce the inflammatory response in sepsis. The investigators retrospectively reviewed patients with sepsis/septic shock who underwent at least one oXiris-treatment from November 2020 to March 2022. The demographic data, baseline levels before treatment, clinical datas, prognosis, and the occurrence of adverse events during treatment were recorded. 90 patients were enrolled in this study. The hemodynamic indices, sequential organ failure assessment score, lactate, inflammatory biomarkers levels were significantly improved at 12 h and 24 h after treatment. Procalcitonin and interleukin-6 reduction post-treatment of oXiris were most pronounced in infection from skin and soft tissue, urinary and abdominal cavity. Logistic regression analysis showed that pre-treatment sequential organ failure assessment score (p = 0.034), percentage decrease in sequential organ failure assessment score (p = 0.004), and age (p = 0.011) were independent risk factors for intensive care unit mortality. In conclusion, oXiris-continuous hemofiltration adsorption may improve hemodynamic indicators, reduce the use of vasoactive drugs, reduce lactate level and infection indicators. Of note, oXiris improve organ function in sepsis, which may result to higher survival rate.

Extracorporeal organ support and the kidney

The concept of extracorporeal organ support (ECOS) encompasses kidney, respiratory, cardiac and hepatic support. In an era of increasing incidence and survival of patients with single or multiple organ failure, knowledge on both multiorgan crosstalk and the physiopathological consequences of extracorporeal organ support have become increasingly important. Immerse within the cross-talk of multiple organ failure (MOF), Acute kidney injury (AKI) may be a part of the clinical presentation in patients undergoing ECOS, either as a concurrent clinical issue since the very start of ECOS or as a de novo event at any point in the clinical course. At any point during the clinical course of a patient with single or multiple organ failure undergoing ECOS, renal function may improve or deteriorate, as a result of the interaction of multiple factors, including multiorgan crosstalk and physiological consequences of ECOS. Common physiopathological ways in which ECOS may influence renal function includes: 1) multiorgan crosstalk (preexisting or de-novo 2)Hemodynamic changes and 3) ECOS-associated coagulation abnormalities and 3) Also, cytokine profile switch, neurohumoral changes and toxins clearance may contribute to the expected physiological changes related to ECOS. The main objective of this review is to summarize the described mechanisms influencing the renal function during the course of ECOS, including renal replacement therapy, extracorporeal membrane oxygenation/carbon dioxide removal and albumin dialysis.

Ultraporous Polyquaternium-Carboxylated Chitosan Composite Hydrogel Spheres with Anticoagulant, Antibacterial, and Rapid Endotoxin Removal Profiles for Sepsis Treatment

Hemoperfusion is an important method to remove endotoxins and save the lives of patients with sepsis. However, the current adsorbents for hemoperfusion have disadvantages of insufficient endotoxin adsorption capacity, poor blood compatibility, and so on. Herein, we proposed a novel emulsion templating (ET) method to prepare ultraporous and double-network carboxylated chitosan (CCS)-poly(diallyl dimethylammonium chloride) (PDDA) hydrogel spheres (ET-CCSPD), bearing both negative and positive charges. CCS was introduced to balance the strong positive charges of PDDA to improve hemocompatibility, and emulsion templates endowed the adsorbent with an ultraporous structure for enhanced adsorption efficacy. The ET-CCSPDs neither damaged blood cells nor activated complement responses. In addition, the activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) was prolonged to 8.5 times, which was beneficial for reducing the injection of anticoagulant in patients. The ET-CCSPDs had excellent scavenging performance against bacteria and endotoxin, with removal ratios of 96.7% for E. coli and 99.8% for S. aureus, respectively, and the static removal ratio of endotoxin in plasma was as high as 99.1% (C₀ = 5.50 EU/mL, critical illness level). An adsorption cartridge filled with the ET-CCSPDs could remove 84.7% of endotoxin within 1 h (C₀ = 100 EU/mL in PBS). Interestingly, the ET-CCSPDs had a good inhibitory effect on the cytokines produced by endotoxin-mediated septic blood. By developing the ET method to prepare ultraporous and double-network adsorbents, the problems of low adsorption efficiency and poor blood compatibility of traditional endotoxin adsorbents have been solved, thus opening a new route to fabricate absorbents for blood purification.

A Novel Method of Endotoxins Removal from Chitosan Hydrogel as a Potential Bioink Component Obtained by CO2 Saturation

The article presents a new approach in the purification of chitosan (CS) hydrogel in order to remove a significant amount of endotoxins without changing its molecular weight and viscosity. Two variants of the method used to purify CS hydrogels from endotoxins were investigated using the PyroGene rFC Enzymatic Cascade assay kit. The effect of the CS purification method was assessed in terms of changes in the dynamic viscosity of its hydrogels, the molecular weight of the polymer, microbiological purity after refrigerated storage and cytotoxicity against L929 cells based on the ISO 10993-5:2009(E) standard. The proposed purification method 1 (M1) allows for the removal of significant amounts of endotoxins: 87.9–97.6% in relation to their initial concentration in the CS hydrogel without affecting the solution viscosity. Moreover, the final solutions were sterile and microbiologically stable during storage. The M1 purification method did not change the morphology of the L929 cells.

Swelling, Protein Adsorption, and Biocompatibility In Vitro of Gel Beads Prepared from Pectin of Hogweed Heracleum sosnówskyi Manden in Comparison with Gel Beads from Apple Pectin

The study aims to develop gel beads with improved functional properties and biocompatibility from hogweed (HS) pectin. HS4 and AP4 gel beads were prepared from the HS pectin and apple pectin (AP) using gelling with calcium ions. HS4 and AP4 gel beads swelled in PBS in dependence on pH. The swelling degree of HS4 and AP4 gel beads was 191 and 136%, respectively, in PBS at pH 7.4. The hardness of HS4 and AP4 gel beads reduced 8.2 and 60 times, respectively, compared with the initial value after 24 h incubation. Both pectin gel beads swelled less in Hanks’ solution than in PBS and swelled less in Hanks’ solution containing peritoneal macrophages than in cell-free Hanks’ solution. Serum protein adsorption by HS4 and AP4 gel beads was 118 ± 44 and 196 ± 68 μg/cm² after 24 h of incubation. Both pectin gel beads demonstrated low rates of hemolysis and complement activation. However, HS4 gel beads inhibited the LPS-stimulated secretion of TNF-α and the expression of TLR4 and NF-κB by macrophages, whereas AP4 gel beads stimulated the inflammatory response of macrophages. HS4 gel beads adsorbed 1.3 times more LPS and adhered to 1.6 times more macrophages than AP4 gel beads. Thus, HS pectin gel has advantages over AP gel concerning swelling behavior, protein adsorption, and biocompatibility.

Interaction of Lipopolysaccharide-Spiked Blood with Anti-Fouling Polymyxin B-Modified Glass

Bacterial endotoxin, also known as lipopolysaccharide (LPS), plays a major role in the initiation of sepsis, a severe inflammatory condition. Removal of the toxin from blood is one accepted method of patient treatment. Polymyxin B (PMB)-modified columns have been employed successfully for this purpose via extra-corporeal blood-flow systems that incorporate a cartridge for toxin removal. Herein we demonstrate that PMB-modified glass beads are able to reduce the presence of LPS competitively with the equivalent fiber column used in a commercial cartridge. Analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and ELISA of released fatty acids from the toxin indicates that PMB does not physically capture or significantly remove LPS from the blood samples. In reality, interaction between the surface-bound PMB and the toxin may lead to disaggregation or monomerization of LPS aggregates. As aggregates are the bioactive form of LPS, it is possible that the monomerization of these entities may be the mechanism by which their toxicity is reduced. Moreover, this work indicates that LPS monomers are stabilized subsequent to disaggregation induced by PMB.

Adsorption-Based Detoxification of Endotoxins by Porous Flexible Organic Frameworks

Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS, endotoxins) cause sepsis that is responsible for a huge amount of mortality globally. However, their neutralization or detoxification remains an unmet medical need. We envisaged that cationic organic frameworks with persistent hydrophobic porosity may adsorb and thus neutralize LPS through a combination of cooperative ion-pairing electrostatic attraction and hydrophobicity. We here report the preparation of two water-soluble flexible organic frameworks (FOF-1 and FOF-2) from tetratopic and ditopic precursors through quantitative formation of hydrazone bonds at room temperature. The two FOFs are revealed to possess hydrodynamic diameters, which range from 20 to 120 nm, depending on the concentrations. Dynamic light scattering and isothermal titration calorimetric and chromogenic limulus amebocyte lysate experiments indicate that both frameworks are able to adsorb and thus reduce the concentration of free LPS molecules in aqueous solution, whereas cytokine inhibition experiments with RAW264.7 support that this adsorption can significantly decrease the toxicity of LPS. In vivo experiments with mice (five males per group) show that the injection of FOF-1 at a dose of 0.6 mg/kg realizes the survival of all of the mice administrated with LPS of the d-galactosamine (d-Gal)-sensitized absolute lethal dose (LD₁₀₀, 0.05 mg/kg), whereas its maximum tolerated dose for mice is determined to be 10 mg/kg. These findings provide a new promising sequestration strategy for the development of porous agents for the neutralization of LPS.