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Kyun ML, Park T, Jung H, Kim I, Kwon JI, Jeong SY, Choi M, Park D, Lee YB, Moon KS. Development of an In Vitro Model for Inflammation Mediated Renal Toxicity Using 3D Renal Tubules and Co-Cultured Human Immune Cells. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2023; 20:1173-1190. [PMID: 37843784 PMCID: PMC10645777 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-023-00602-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The emergence of various infectious diseases and the toxic effects of hyperinflammation by biotherapeutics have highlighted the need for in vitro preclinical models mimicking the human immune system. In vitro models studying the relationship between hyperinflammation and acute renal injury mainly rely on 2D culture systems, which have shown limitations in recapitulating kidney function. Herein, we developed an in vitro kidney toxicity model by co-culturing 3D engineered kidney proximal tubules cells (RPTEC/TERT1) with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC). METHODS RPTEC/TERT1 were sandwich cultured to form 3D renal tubules for 16 days. The tubules were then co-cultured with PBMC using transwell (0.4 μm pores) for 24 h. Hyperinflammation of PBMC was induced during co-culture using polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (polyI:C) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to investigate the effects of the induced hyperinflammation on the renal tubules. RESULTS Encapsulated RPTEC/TERT1 cells in Matrigel exhibited elevated renal function markers compared to 2D culture. The coexistence of PBMC and polyI:C induced a strong inflammatory response in the kidney cells. This hyperinflammation significantly reduced primary cilia formation and upregulated kidney injury markers along the 3D tubules. Similarly, treating co-cultured PBMC with LPS to induce hyperinflammation resulted in comparable inflammatory responses and potential kidney injury. CONCLUSION The model demonstrated similar changes in kidney injury markers following polyI:C and LPS treatment, indicating its suitability for detecting immune-associated kidney damage resulting from infections and biopharmaceutical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi-Lang Kyun
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Tamina Park
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyewon Jung
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Inhye Kim
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji-In Kwon
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Seo Yule Jeong
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Myeongjin Choi
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Daeui Park
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
| | - Yu Bin Lee
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea.
| | - Kyoung-Sik Moon
- Department of Advanced Toxicology Research, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea.
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Abstract
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a heterogeneous autoimmune disorder that leads to severe joint deformities, negatively affecting the patient's quality of life. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which include exosomes and ectosomes, act as intercellular communication mediators in several physiological and pathological processes in various diseases including RA. In contrast, EVs secreted by mesenchymal stem cells perform an immunomodulatory function and stimulate cartilage repair, showing promising therapeutic results in animal models of RA. EVs from other sources, including dendritic cells, neutrophils and myeloid-derived suppressor cells, also influence the biological function of immune and joint cells. This review describes the role of EVs in the pathogenesis of RA and presents evidence supporting future studies on the therapeutic potential of EVs from different sources. This information will contribute to a better understanding of RA development, as well as a starting point for exploring cell-free-based therapies for RA.
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Virus Mimetic Poly (I:C)-Primed Airway Exosome-like Particles Enter Brain and Induce Inflammatory Cytokines and Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species in Microglia. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10121359. [PMID: 34943274 PMCID: PMC8698382 DOI: 10.3390/biology10121359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary Upper respiratory tract viral infections are among the most common diseases. The blood-brain barrier protects the brain from direct invasion of pathogens. However, the cells share their content with other cells in small nanovesicles called exosomes that can travel long distances and cross biological barriers. Therefore, virus-infected cell extracellular vesicles (EVs) might transmit inflammatory signals or even viral particles to other cells. If they would carry such signals or particles to the central nervous system, it might cause neuroinflammation. However, the migration and impact of virus-primed airway cell EVs on the brain have not been studied yet. Therefore, the study aimed to track airway EVs from the respiratory tract to the brain and determine how infection-primed particles affect microglia—the cells responsible for immune response in the brain. The study revealed that airway cell EVs enter the brain within an hour and gather in microglia. Interestingly, many airway EVs were found in the hippocampus, the region most affected by Alzheimer’s disease. Moreover, EVs from virus-infected airway cells stimulated reactive oxygen species in microglia and induced other inflammation mediators in the brain. Thus, airway cells indeed might communicate inflammatory information to the brain during viral infection. Abstract Viral infections induce extracellular vesicles (EVs) containing viral material and inflammatory factors. Exosomes can easily cross the blood-brain barrier during respiratory tract infection and transmit the inflammatory signal to the brain; however, such a hypothesis has no experimental evidence. The study investigated whether exosome-like vesicles (ELVs) from virus mimetic poly (I:C)-primed airway cells enter the brain and interact with brain immune cells microglia. Airway cells were isolated from Wistar rats and BALB/c mice; microglial cell cultures—from Wistar rats. ELVs from poly (I:C)-stimulated airway cell culture medium were isolated by precipitation, visualised by transmission electron microscopy, and evaluated by nanoparticle analyser; exosomal markers CD81 and CD9 were determined by ELISA. For in vitro and in vivo tracking, particles were loaded with Alexa Fluor 555-labelled RNA. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) were evaluated by DCFDA fluorescence and mitochondrial superoxide—by MitoSOX. ELVs from poly (I:C)-primed airway cells entered the brain within an hour after intranasal introduction, were internalised by microglia and induced intracellular and intramitochondrial ROS production. There was no ROS increase in microglial cells was after treatment with ELVs from airway cells untreated with poly (I:C). In addition, poly (I:C)-primed airway cells induced inflammatory cytokine expression in the brain. The data indicate that ELVs secreted by virus-primed airway cells might enter the brain, cause the activation of microglial cells and neuroinflammation.
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Activation of Innate Immunity by Therapeutic Nucleic Acids. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222413360. [PMID: 34948156 PMCID: PMC8704878 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222413360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Nucleic acid-based therapeutics have gained increased attention during recent decades because of their wide range of application prospects. Immunostimulatory nucleic acids represent a promising class of potential drugs for the treatment of tumoral and viral diseases due to their low toxicity and stimulation of the body’s own innate immunity by acting on the natural mechanisms of its activation. The repertoire of nucleic acids that directly interact with the components of the immune system is expanding with the improvement of both analytical methods and methods for the synthesis of nucleic acids and their derivatives. Despite the obvious progress in this area, the problem of delivering therapeutic acids to target cells as well as the unresolved issue of achieving a specific therapeutic effect based on activating the mechanism of interferon and anti-inflammatory cytokine synthesis. Minimizing the undesirable effects of excessive secretion of inflammatory cytokines remains an unsolved task. This review examines recent data on the types of immunostimulatory nucleic acids, the receptors interacting with them, and the mechanisms of immunity activation under the action of these molecules. Finally, data on immunostimulatory nucleic acids in ongoing and completed clinical trials will be summarized.
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Kasthuriarachchi TDW, Harasgama JC, Lee S, Kwon H, Wan Q, Lee J. Cytosolic β-catenin is involved in macrophage M2 activation and antiviral defense in teleosts: Delineation through molecular characterization of β-catenin homolog from redlip mullet (Planiliza haematocheila). FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2021; 118:228-240. [PMID: 34284111 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2021.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
β-catenin is a structural protein that makes the cell-cell connection in adherence junctions. Besides the structural functions, it also plays a role as a central transducer of the canonical Wnt signaling cascade, regulating nearly four hundred genes related to various cellular processes. Recently the immune functions of β-catenin during pathogenic invasion have gained more attention. In the present study, we elucidated the immune function of fish β-catenin by identifying and characterizing the β-catenin homolog (PhCatβ) from redlip mullet, Planiliza haematocheila. The complete open reading frame of PhCatβ consists of 2352 bp, which encodes a putative β-catenin homolog (molecular weight: 85.7 kDa). Multiple sequence alignment analysis revealed that β-catenin is highly conserved in vertebrates. Phylogenetic reconstruction demonstrated the close evolutionary relationship between PhCatβ and other fish β-catenin counterparts. The tissue distribution analysis showed the highest mRNA expression of PhCatβ in heart tissues of the redlip mullet under normal physiological conditions. While in response to pathogenic stress, the PhCatβ transcription level was dramatically increased in the spleen and gill tissues. The overexpression of PhCatβ stimulated M2 polarization and cell proliferation of murine RAW 264.7 macrophage. In fish cells, the overexpression of PhCatβ resulted in a significant upregulation of antiviral gene transcription and vice versa. Moreover, the overexpression of PhCatβ could inhibit the replication of VHSV in FHM cells. Our results strongly suggest that PhCatβ plays a role in macrophage activation and antiviral immune response in redlip mullet.
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Affiliation(s)
- T D W Kasthuriarachchi
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea
| | - J C Harasgama
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea
| | - Seongdo Lee
- National Fishery Product Quality Management Service, Busan, 49111, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyukjae Kwon
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea
| | - Qiang Wan
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jehee Lee
- Department of Marine Life Sciences & Fish Vaccine Research Center, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63243, Republic of Korea; Marine Science Institute, Jeju National University, Jeju Self-Governing Province, 63333, Republic of Korea.
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Siriwattananon K, Manopwisedjaroen S, Shanmugaraj B, Prompetchara E, Ketloy C, Buranapraditkun S, Tharakhet K, Kaewpang P, Ruxrungtham K, Thitithanyanont A, Phoolcharoen W. Immunogenicity Studies of Plant-Produced SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Binding Domain-Based Subunit Vaccine Candidate with Different Adjuvant Formulations. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:vaccines9070744. [PMID: 34358160 PMCID: PMC8310282 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9070744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the rapid transmission of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) causing serious public health problems and economic burden, the development of effective vaccines is a high priority for controlling the virus spread. Our group has previously demonstrated that the plant-produced receptor-binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 fused with Fc of human IgG was capable of eliciting potent neutralizing antibody and cellular immune responses in animal studies, and the immunogenicity could be improved by the addition of an alum adjuvant. Here, we performed a head-to-head comparison of different commercially available adjuvants, including aluminum hydroxide gel (alum), AddaVax (MF59), monophosphoryl lipid A from Salmonella minnesota R595 (mPLA-SM), and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)), in mice by combining them with plant-produced RBD-Fc, and the differences in the immunogenicity of RBD-Fc with different adjuvants were evaluated. The specific antibody responses in terms of total IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a subtypes and neutralizing antibodies, as well as vaccine-specific T-lymphocyte responses, induced by the different tested adjuvants were compared. We observed that all adjuvants tested here induced a high level of total IgG and neutralizing antibodies, but mPLA-SM and poly (I:C) showed the induction of a balanced IgG1 and IgG2a (Th2/Th1) immune response. Further, poly (I:C) significantly increased the frequency of IFN-γ-expressing cells compared with control, whereas no significant difference was observed between the adjuvanted groups. This data revealed the adjuvants' role in enhancing the immune response of RBD-Fc vaccination and the immune profiles elicited by different adjuvants, which could prove helpful for the rational development of next-generation SARS-CoV-2 RBD-Fc subunit vaccines. However, additional research is essential to further investigate the efficacy and safety of this vaccine formulation before clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konlavat Siriwattananon
- Research Unit for Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Suwimon Manopwisedjaroen
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; (S.M.); (A.T.)
| | | | - Eakachai Prompetchara
- Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development (Chula Vaccine Research Center, Chula VRC), Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (E.P.); (C.K.); (S.B.); (K.T.); (P.K.); (K.R.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Chutitorn Ketloy
- Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development (Chula Vaccine Research Center, Chula VRC), Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (E.P.); (C.K.); (S.B.); (K.T.); (P.K.); (K.R.)
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Supranee Buranapraditkun
- Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development (Chula Vaccine Research Center, Chula VRC), Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (E.P.); (C.K.); (S.B.); (K.T.); (P.K.); (K.R.)
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Kittipan Tharakhet
- Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development (Chula Vaccine Research Center, Chula VRC), Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (E.P.); (C.K.); (S.B.); (K.T.); (P.K.); (K.R.)
| | - Papatsara Kaewpang
- Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development (Chula Vaccine Research Center, Chula VRC), Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (E.P.); (C.K.); (S.B.); (K.T.); (P.K.); (K.R.)
| | - Kiat Ruxrungtham
- Center of Excellence in Vaccine Research and Development (Chula Vaccine Research Center, Chula VRC), Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (E.P.); (C.K.); (S.B.); (K.T.); (P.K.); (K.R.)
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Arunee Thitithanyanont
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand; (S.M.); (A.T.)
| | - Waranyoo Phoolcharoen
- Research Unit for Plant-Produced Pharmaceuticals, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +662-218-8359; Fax: +662-218-8357
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McGarry N, Murray CL, Garvey S, Wilkinson A, Tortorelli L, Ryan L, Hayden L, Healy D, Griffin EW, Hennessy E, Arumugam M, Skelly DT, Mitchell KJ, Cunningham C. Double stranded RNA drives anti-viral innate immune responses, sickness behavior and cognitive dysfunction dependent on dsRNA length, IFNAR1 expression and age. Brain Behav Immun 2021; 95:413-428. [PMID: 33892139 PMCID: PMC8447494 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2021.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Double stranded RNA is generated during viral replication. The synthetic analogue poly I:C is frequently used to mimic anti-viral innate immune responses in models of psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders including schizophrenia, autism, Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Many studies perform limited analysis of innate immunity despite these responses potentially differing as a function of dsRNA molecular weight and age. Therefore fundamental questions relevant to impacts of systemic viral infection on brain function and integrity remain. Here, we studied innate immune-inducing properties of poly I:C preparations of different lengths and responses in adult and aged mice. High molecular weight (HMW) poly I:C (1-6 kb, 12 mg/kg) produced more robust sickness behavior and more robust IL-6, IFN-I and TNF-α responses than poly I:C of < 500 bases (low MW) preparations. This was partly overcome with higher doses of LMW (up to 80 mg/kg), but neither circulating IFNβ nor brain transcription of Irf7 were significantly induced by LMW poly I:C, despite brain Ifnb transcription, suggesting that brain IFN-dependent gene expression is predominantly triggered by circulating IFNβ binding of IFNAR1. In aged animals, poly I:C induced exaggerated IL-6, IL-1β and IFN-I in the plasma and similar exaggerated brain cytokine responses. This was associated with acute working memory deficits selectively in aged mice. Thus, we demonstrate dsRNA length-, IFNAR1- and age-dependent effects on anti-viral inflammation and cognitive function. The data have implications for CNS symptoms of acute systemic viral infection such as those with SARS-CoV-2 and for models of maternal immune activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niamh McGarry
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Carol L Murray
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Sean Garvey
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Abigail Wilkinson
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Lucas Tortorelli
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Lucy Ryan
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Lorna Hayden
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Daire Healy
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Eadaoin W Griffin
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Edel Hennessy
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Malathy Arumugam
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland
| | - Donal T Skelly
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin J Mitchell
- Smurfit Institute of Genetics, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Colm Cunningham
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology, Trinity Biomedical Sciences Institute & Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland.
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Chatzis L, Vlachoyiannopoulos PG, Tzioufas AG, Goules AV. New frontiers in precision medicine for Sjogren's syndrome. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2021; 17:127-141. [PMID: 33478279 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2021.1879641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Sjögren's syndrome is a unique systemic autoimmune disease, placed in the center of systemic autoimmunity and at the crossroads of autoimmunity and lymphoproliferation. The diverse clinical picture of the disease, the inefficacy of current biologic treatments, and the co-existence with lymphoma conferring to the patients' morbidity and mortality force the scientific community to review disease pathogenesis and reveal the major implicated cellular and molecular elements.Areas covered: Biomarkers for early diagnosis, prediction, stratification, monitoring, and targeted treatments can serve as a tool to interlink and switch from the clinical phenotyping of the disease into a more sophisticated classification based on the underlying critical molecular pathways and endotypes. Such a transition may define the establishment of the so-called precision medicine era in which patients' management will be based on grouping according to pathogenetically related biomarkers. In the current work, literature on Sjogren's syndrome covering several research fields including clinical, translational, and basic research has been reviewed.Expert opinion: The perspectives of clinical and translational research are anticipated to define phenotypic clustering of high-risk pSS patients and link the clinical picture of the disease with fundamental molecular mechanisms and molecules implicated in pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loukas Chatzis
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Athanasios G Tzioufas
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Andreas V Goules
- Department of Pathophysiology, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Mcgarry N, Murray CL, Garvey S, Wilkinson A, Tortorelli L, Ryan L, Hayden L, Healy D, Griffin EW, Hennessy E, Arumugam M, Skelly DT, Mitchell KJ, Cunningham C. Double stranded RNA drives innate immune responses, sickness behavior and cognitive impairment dependent on dsRNA length, IFNAR1 expression and age.. [PMID: 33442686 PMCID: PMC7805443 DOI: 10.1101/2021.01.09.426034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Double stranded RNA is generated during viral replication. The synthetic analogue poly I:C is frequently used to mimic anti-viral innate immune responses in models of psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders including schizophrenia, autism, Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Many studies perform limited analysis of innate immunity despite these responses potentially differing as a function of dsRNA molecular weight and age. Therefore fundamental questions relevant to impacts of systemic viral infection on brain function and integrity remain. Here, we studied innate immune-inducing properties of poly I:C preparations of different lengths and responses in adult and aged mice. High molecular weight (HMW) poly I:C (1–6kb, 12 mg/kg) produced more robust sickness behavior and more robust IL-6, IFN-I and TNFα responses than poly I:C of <500 bases (low MW) preparations. This was partly overcome with higher doses of LMW (up to 80 mg/kg), but neither circulating IFNβ nor brain transcription of Irf7 were significantly induced by LMW poly I:C, despite brain Ifnb transcription, suggesting that brain IFN-dependent gene expression is predominantly triggered by circulating IFNβ binding of IFNAR1. In aged animals, poly I:C induced exaggerated IL-6, IL-1β and IFN-I in the plasma and similar exaggerated brain cytokine responses. This was associated with acute working memory deficits selectively in aged mice. Thus, we demonstrate dsRNA length-, IFNAR1- and age-dependent effects on anti-viral inflammation and cognitive function. The data have implications for CNS symptoms of acute systemic viral infection such as those with SARS-CoV-2 and for models of maternal immune activation.
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High Molecular Weight Chitosan-Complexed RNA Nanoadjuvant for Effective Cancer Immunotherapy. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11120680. [PMID: 31847372 PMCID: PMC6969902 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11120680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 12/08/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Nucleic acid-based adjuvants have recently emerged as promising candidates for use in cancer vaccines to induce tumor-suppressing immune cells. In this study, we tested whether complexation of a nucleic acid-based adjuvant with chitosan (CTS) modulates immune adjuvant functions. As a nucleic acid-based adjuvant, we used toll-like receptor 3-recognizing RNA adjuvant (RA). Negatively charged RA formed nanoscale polyplexes with cationic CTS that possessed positive zeta potentials. RA/CTS polyplexes exerted dendritic cell (DC)-maturation effects without causing significant DC toxicity. This DC-maturation effect was CTS molecular weight dependent, with RA/CTS polyplexes with a CTS molecular weight of 340 kDa (RA/CTS 340K) producing the greatest effect. Subcutaneous injection of RA/CTS 340K polyplexes with the model tumor antigen ovalbumin exerted a preventive effect against challenge by ovalbumin-expressing tumor cells. It also provided greater inhibitory effects against a second challenge with the same tumor cells compared with other treatments. These protective effects of subcutaneous RA/CTS polyplex treatment were associated with the highest tumor antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses after tumor challenge, and with the greatest infiltration of CD4 helper T cell and CD8 T cell into the tumor tissues. Mice vaccinated with ovalbumin and RA/CTS polyplexes showed complete survival, even after repeated challenge with tumor cells. Our results suggest the potential of RA/CTS polyplexes as effective nanoadjuvants in the design of tumor vaccines and cancer immunotherapy.
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Zhou Y, Zhou Y, Kang X, Meng C, Zhang R, Guo Y, Xiong D, Song L, Jiao X, Pan Z. Molecular cloning and functional characterisation of duck ( Anas platyrhynchos) tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 3. Br Poult Sci 2019; 60:357-365. [PMID: 31046421 DOI: 10.1080/00071668.2019.1614528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
1. Tumour necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 3 (TRAF3) is a key regulator of innate immunity and acquired immunity, and has a salient anti-viral role. 2. In this experiment, the duck TRAF3 (DuTRAF3) gene was cloned according to the Anas platyrhynchos TRAF3 sequence to explore its function. The TRAF3 open reading frame contains 1704 bp that encode a protein of 567 amino acids, which contain a RING finger domain, two zinc finger motifs, a coiled-coil region, and a MATH domain. 3. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed that DuTRAF3 was expressed in all the examined tissues, with a comparatively higher expression in the spleen and brain tissues. 4. In HEK293T cells, DuTRAF3 overexpression resulted in a significantly increased NF-κB activity and interferon (IFN)-β promoter activation. 5. Following resiquimod (R848) and poly(I:C) stimulation of duck peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), the expressions of TRAF3 and IFN-β were significantly upregulated; in addition, following R848 stimulation, the mRNA levels of IL-6, IL-8 and IL-10 were also significantly upregulated. After infection with the Newcastle Disease Virus LaSota vaccine strain, the mRNA levels of IL-6 and IL-10 were significantly upregulated, while that of TRAF3 was downregulated. 6. These results suggest that DuTRAF3 has an important role to play in innate antiviral immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Zhou
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - Y Zhou
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - X Kang
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - C Meng
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - R Zhang
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - Y Guo
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - D Xiong
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - L Song
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - X Jiao
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
| | - Z Pan
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Zoonosis , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,b Jiangsu Co-innovation Centre for the Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,c Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control of Biological Hazard Factors (Animal Origin) for Agrifood Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China.,d Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education , Yangzhou University , Yangzhou , Jiangsu , China
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13
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Burbano C, Villar-Vesga J, Vásquez G, Muñoz-Vahos C, Rojas M, Castaño D. Proinflammatory Differentiation of Macrophages Through Microparticles That Form Immune Complexes Leads to T- and B-Cell Activation in Systemic Autoimmune Diseases. Front Immunol 2019; 10:2058. [PMID: 31555283 PMCID: PMC6724570 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.02058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) demonstrate increased circulating microparticles (MP). These vesicles, primarily those that form immune complexes (MP-IC), may activate monocytes. We evaluated the effect of MP and MP-IC in the differentiation of monocytes to macrophages (monocyte-derived macrophages; MDM) and for consequences in autologous lymphocyte activation. Monocytes from healthy controls (HC) and patients with RA and SLE that differentiated into MDM in the presence of MP-IC showed a proinflammatory (M1-like) profile, which was more evident using MP-IC from patients with RA than those from patients with SLE. Notably, MDM from HC and patients with RA that differentiated with MP-IC were more prone to M1-like profile than those from patients with SLE. In HC and patients with RA, monocyte differentiation using MP-IC decreased the frequency of MDM that bound/internalized latex beads. The M1-like profile did not completely revert following IL-4 treatment. The effect of M1-like MDM on T lymphocytes stimulated with phytohemagglutinin was further evaluated. MDM differentiated with MP enhanced the proliferation of T cells obtained from patients with RA compared with those differentiated with MP-IC or without vesicles. Neither MP nor MP-IC induced interferon (IFN)-γ+ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α+ T cells in patients with RA. Conversely, unlike MDM differentiated with or without MP, MP-IC enhanced the proliferation and increased the frequencies of IFN-γ+CD4+ T, TNF-α+CD4+ T, and IFN-γ+CD8+ T cells in patients with SLE. The co-culture of B cells with MDM obtained from patients with RA and SLE and differentiated with MP-IC increased the expression of B-cell activation markers and prevented B lymphocyte death. Strikingly, only for patients with SLE, these responses seemed to be associated with a significant increase in B-cell activating factor levels, high plasmablast frequency and immunoglobulin production. These results showed that MP-IC from patients with systemic autoimmune diseases favored the polarization of MDM into a proinflammatory profile that promotes T-cell activation, and additionally induced B-cell activation and survival. Therefore, the effect of MP-IC in mononuclear phagocytes may be an important factor for modulating adaptive responses in systemic autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catalina Burbano
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Medellin, Colombia.,Unidad de Citometría de Flujo, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Juan Villar-Vesga
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Gloria Vásquez
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Carlos Muñoz-Vahos
- Sección de Reumatología, Hospital Universitario San Vicente Fundación, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Mauricio Rojas
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Medellin, Colombia.,Unidad de Citometría de Flujo, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Diana Castaño
- Grupo de Inmunología Celular e Inmunogenética, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas, Universidad de Antioquia UdeA, Medellin, Colombia
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14
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Tsuno H, Arito M, Suematsu N, Sato T, Hashimoto A, Matsui T, Omoteyama K, Sato M, Okamoto K, Tohma S, Kurokawa MS, Kato T. A proteomic analysis of serum-derived exosomes in rheumatoid arthritis. BMC Rheumatol 2018; 2:35. [PMID: 30886985 PMCID: PMC6390805 DOI: 10.1186/s41927-018-0041-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background To understand the roles of serum exosomes in rheumatoid arthritis (RA), we comprehensively investigated the protein profiles of serum exosomes in patients with RA. Methods Exosomes were isolated from serum samples obtained from 33 patients (12 with active RA [aRA], 11 with inactive RA [iRA], 10 with osteoarthritis [OA]) and 10 healthy donors (HLs). Proteins extracted from the exosomes were separated by two-dimensional differential gel electrophoresis (2D-DIGE) and identified by mass spectrometry. Results In total, 204 protein spots were detected by 2D-DIGE. In the aRA, iRA, and OA groups, 24, 5, and 7 spots showed approximately ≥ ±1.3-fold intensity differences compared with the HL group, respectively. We were able to identify proteins in six protein spots. Among them, the protein spot identified as Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) showed approximately 6-fold higher intensity in the aRA group than in the other groups. Conclusions Patients with active RA possessed considerably different protein profiles of serum exosomes from patients with iRA, patients with OA, and healthy donors. The unique protein profile of serum exosomes, such as the possession of abundant TLR3 fragments, may reflect the pathophysiology of active RA. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s41927-018-0041-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirotaka Tsuno
- 1Clinical Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, St. Marianna University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511 Japan.,2Department of Rheumatology, National Hospital Organization Sagamihara National Hospital, 18-1, Sakuradai, Minami, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0392 Japan
| | - Mitsumi Arito
- 1Clinical Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, St. Marianna University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511 Japan
| | - Naoya Suematsu
- 1Clinical Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, St. Marianna University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511 Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Sato
- 1Clinical Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, St. Marianna University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511 Japan
| | - Atsushi Hashimoto
- 2Department of Rheumatology, National Hospital Organization Sagamihara National Hospital, 18-1, Sakuradai, Minami, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0392 Japan
| | - Toshihiro Matsui
- 2Department of Rheumatology, National Hospital Organization Sagamihara National Hospital, 18-1, Sakuradai, Minami, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0392 Japan
| | - Kazuki Omoteyama
- 1Clinical Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, St. Marianna University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511 Japan
| | - Masaaki Sato
- 1Clinical Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, St. Marianna University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511 Japan
| | - Kazuki Okamoto
- 5The Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research, Osaka University, 8-1, Mihogaoka, Osaka, Ibaraki 567-0047 Japan
| | - Shigeto Tohma
- 3National Hospital Organization Tokyo National Hospital, 3-1-1, Takeoka, Kiyose, Tokyo, 204-8585 Japan
| | - Manae S Kurokawa
- 4Disease Biomarker Analysis and Molecular Regulation, St. Marianna University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511 Japan
| | - Tomohiro Kato
- 1Clinical Proteomics and Molecular Medicine, St. Marianna University Graduate School of Medicine, 2-16-1, Sugao, Miyamae, Kawasaki, Kanagawa 216-8511 Japan
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15
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Identification of DNA methylation regulated novel host genes relevant to inhibition of virus replication in porcine PK15 cell using double stranded RNA mimics and DNA methyltransferase inhibitor. Genomics 2018; 111:1464-1473. [PMID: 30315899 PMCID: PMC7125705 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygeno.2018.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
During RNA viruses's replication, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) is normally produced and induce host innate immune response. Most of gene activation due cytokine mediated but which are due to methylation mediated is still unknown. In the study, DNA methylome was integrated with our previous transcriptome data to investigate the differentially methylated regions and genes using MeDIP-chip technology. We found that the transcriptional expressions of 15, 37 and 18 genes were negatively related with their promoter DNA methylation levels in the cells treated by PolyI:C, Aza-CdR, as well as PolyI:C plus Aza-CdR, respectively, compared with the untreated cells. GO analysis revealed hypo-methylated genes (BNIP3L and CDK9) and a hyper-methylated gene (ZC3HAV1) involved in the host response to viral replication. Our results suggest that these novel genes targeted by DNA methylation can be potential markers relevant to virus replication and host innate immune response to set up a medical model of infectious diseases.
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