The Role of Pre-existing Cross-Reactive Central Memory CD4 T-Cells in Vaccination With Previously Unseen Influenza Strains

Original Antigenic Sin in CD4+ T Cells

Original antigenic sin (OAS) describes the phenomenon in which prior exposure to an antigen weakens the adaptive antibody response to a subsequent heterologous infection. This phenomenon can diminish the effectiveness of immunity acquired through vaccination or previous infections. We demonstrate that OAS arises because CD4+ T cell proliferation and regulation signals are antigen-nonspecific. Rapidly responding memory CD4+ T cells trigger regulatory T cell (Tregs) responses, which prematurely suppress the naïve CD4+ T cell response, leading to a similar OAS effect in CD4+ T cells. This mechanism is illustrated through a mathematical model incorporating naïve and memory CD4+ T cell proliferation, interleukin-2 (IL-2), and Tregs. The model, calibrated with experimental data, employs numerical simulations to analyse how CD4+ T cell responses vary with the degree of cross-reactivity between memory CD4+ T cells and the antigen associated with the secondary infection. The findings indicate that the immune response is weakest at an intermediate level of cross-reactivity, a key characteristic of OAS. This mechanism may also explain OAS in antibody responses.

Effect of immunoadsorption on clinical presentation and immune alterations in COVID-19-induced and/or aggravated ME/CFS

Autoantibodies (AABs) are currently being investigated as causative or aggravating factors during post-COVID. In this study, we analyze the effect of immunoadsorption therapy on symptom improvement and the relationship with immunological parameters in post-COVID patients exhibiting symptoms of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) induced or aggravated by an SARS-CoV-2 infection. This observational study includes 12 post-COVID patients exhibiting a predominance of ME/CFS symptoms alongside increased concentrations of autonomic nervous system receptor (ANSR) autoantibodies and neurological impairments. We found that following immunoadsorption therapy, the ANSR AABs were nearly eliminated from the patients' blood. The removal of immunoglobulin G antibodies was accompanied by a decrease of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-4, IL-2, IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor, and IL-17A serum levels, and a significant reduction of soluble spike protein. Notably, a strong positive correlation between pro-inflammatory cytokines and ASNR-AABs β1, β2, M3, and M4 was observed in spike protein-positive patients, whereas no such correlation was evident in spike protein-negative patients. Thirty days post-immunoadsorption therapy, patients exhibited notable improvement in neuropsychological function and a modest but statistically significant amelioration of hand grip strength was observed. However, neither self-reported symptoms nor scores on ME/CFS questionnaires showed a significant improvement and a rebound of the removed proteins occurring within a month.

Propionic acid supplementation promotes the expansion of regulatory T cells in patients with end-stage renal disease but not in renal transplant patients

In a previous study, we showed an anti-inflammatory effect of propionic acid supplementation in dialysis patients. The present study intends to analyze the effect of propionic acid on the chronic inflammatory state and T-cell composition in kidney transplant patients compared to dialysis patients. A total of 10 dialysis patients and 16 kidney transplant patients under immunosuppressive standard triple immunosuppressive therapy received 2 × 500 mg propionic acid per day for 30 days. The cellular immune system was analyzed before and after the propionic acid supplementation and 30-90 days thereafter as a follow-up. We measured the main immune cell types and performed an in-depth characterization of T cells including regulatory T cells (Tregs), B cells, and dendritic cells. In addition, we assessed the functional activity and antigenic responsiveness by analysis of third-party antigen-specific T cells after their stimulation by recall (tetanus diphtheria vaccine) antigen. In dialysis patients, we observed an expansion of CD25highCD127- Tregs after propionic acid intake. In contrast, the same supplementation did not result in any expansion of Tregs in transplant patients under immunosuppressive therapy. We also did not observe any changes in the frequencies of the main immune cell subsets except for CD4+/CD8+ distribution with an increase of CD4+ T cells and decrease of CD8+ T cells in the transplant population. Our data suggest that dietary supplements containing propionate might have a beneficial effect decreasing systemic inflammation in dialysis patients through Treg expansion. However, this effect was not observed in transplant patients, which could be explained by counteracting effect of immunosuppressive drugs preventing Treg expansion.

Effects of Influenza Vaccine on the Immune Responses to SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination

A number of studies have suggested that influenza vaccination can provide protection against COVID-19, but the underlying mechanisms that could explain this association are still unclear. In this study, the effect of the 2021/2022 seasonal influenza vaccination on the immune response to the booster dose of anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccination was evaluated in a cohort of healthy individuals. A total of 113 participants were enrolled, 74 of whom had no prior COVID-19 diagnosis or significant comorbidities were considered for the analysis. Participants received the anti-influenza tetravalent vaccine and the booster dose of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine or the anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine alone. Blood was collected before and 4 weeks after each vaccination and 12 weeks after SARS-CoV-2 vaccination and analyzed for anti-flu and anti-spike-specific antibody titers and for in vitro influenza and SARS-CoV-2 neutralization capacity. Results indicated an increased reactivity in subjects who received both influenza and SARS-CoV-2 vaccinations compared to those who received only the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine, with sustained anti-spike antibody titers up to 12 weeks post-vaccination. Immune response to the influenza vaccine was evaluated, and individuals were stratified as high or low responders. High responders showed increased antibody titers against the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine both after 4 and 12 weeks post-vaccination. Conversely, individuals classified as low responders were less responsive to the SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. These data indicate that both external stimuli, such as influenza vaccination, and the host's intrinsic ability to respond to stimuli play a role in the response to the vaccine.

CD8+ T cell memory induced by successive SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccinations is characterized by shifts in clonal dominance

mRNA vaccines against the spike glycoprotein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) elicit strong T cell responses. However, a clonal-resolution analysis of T cell responses to mRNA vaccination has not been performed. Here, we temporally track the CD8+ T cell repertoire in individuals who received three shots of the BNT162b2 mRNA vaccine through longitudinal T cell receptor sequencing with peptide-human leukocyte antigen (HLA) tetramer analysis. We demonstrate a shift in T cell responses between the clonotypes with different kinetics: from early responders that expand rapidly after the first shot to main responders that greatly expand after the second shot. Although the main responders re-expand after the third shot, their clonal diversity is skewed, and newly elicited third responders partially replace them. Furthermore, this shift in clonal dominance occurs not only between, but also within, clonotypes specific for spike epitopes. Our study will be a valuable resource for understanding vaccine-induced T cell responses in general.

Identification of early gene expression profiles associated with long-lasting antibody responses to the Ebola vaccine Ad26.ZEBOV/MVA-BN-Filo

Ebola virus disease is a severe hemorrhagic fever with a high fatality rate. We investigate transcriptome profiles at 3 h, 1 day, and 7 days after vaccination with Ad26.ZEBOV and MVA-BN-Filo. 3 h after Ad26.ZEBOV injection, we observe an increase in genes related to antigen presentation, sensing, and T and B cell receptors. The highest response occurs 1 day after Ad26.ZEBOV injection, with an increase of the gene expression of interferon-induced antiviral molecules, monocyte activation, and sensing receptors. This response is regulated by the HESX1, ATF3, ANKRD22, and ETV7 transcription factors. A plasma cell signature is observed on day 7 post-Ad26.ZEBOV vaccination, with an increase of CD138, MZB1, CD38, CD79A, and immunoglobulin genes. We have identified early expressed genes correlated with the magnitude of the antibody response 21 days after the MVA-BN-Filo and 364 days after Ad26.ZEBOV vaccinations. Our results provide early gene signatures that correlate with vaccine-induced Ebola virus glycoprotein-specific antibodies.

Single-cell clonal tracking of persistent T-cells in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

The critical balance between intended and adverse effects in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (alloHSCT) depends on the fate of individual donor T-cells. To this end, we tracked αβT-cell clonotypes during stem cell mobilization treatment with granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) in healthy donors and for six months during immune reconstitution after transfer to transplant recipients. More than 250 αβT-cell clonotypes were tracked from donor to recipient. These clonotypes consisted almost exclusively of CD8⁺ effector memory T cells (CD8TEM), which exhibited a different transcriptional signature with enhanced effector and cytotoxic functions compared to other CD8TEM. Importantly, these distinct and persisting clonotypes could already be delineated in the donor. We confirmed these phenotypes on the protein level and their potential for selection from the graft. Thus, we identified a transcriptional signature associated with persistence and expansion of donor T-cell clonotypes after alloHSCT that may be exploited for personalized graft manipulation strategies in future studies.

Impact of antigenic evolution and original antigenic sin on SARS-CoV-2 immunity

Infections with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and vaccinations targeting the spike protein (S) offer protective immunity against coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). This immunity may further be shaped by cross-reactivity with common cold coronaviruses. Mutations arising in S that are associated with altered intrinsic virus properties and immune escape result in the continued circulation of SARS-CoV-2 variants. Potentially, vaccine updates will be required to protect against future variants of concern, as for influenza. To offer potent protection against future variants, these second-generation vaccines may need to redirect immunity to epitopes associated with immune escape and not merely boost immunity toward conserved domains in preimmune individuals. For influenza, efficacy of repeated vaccination is hampered by original antigenic sin, an attribute of immune memory that leads to greater induction of antibodies specific to the first-encountered variant of an immunogen compared with subsequent variants. In this Review, recent findings on original antigenic sin are discussed in the context of SARS-CoV-2 evolution. Unanswered questions and future directions are highlighted, with an emphasis on the impact on disease outcome and vaccine design.

In vitro and in vivo evidence that the switch from calcineurin to mTOR inhibitors may be a strategy for immunosuppression in Epstein-Barr virus-associated post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder

Post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder is a life-threatening complication of immunosuppression following transplantation mediated by failure of T cells to control Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-infected and transformed B cells. Typically, a modification or reduction of immunosuppression is recommended, but insufficiently defined thus far. In order to help delineate this, we characterized EBV-antigen-specific T cells and lymphoblastoid cell lines from healthy donors and in patients with a kidney transplant in the absence or presence of the standard immunosuppressants tacrolimus, cyclosporin A, prednisolone, rapamycin, and mycophenolic acid. Phenotypes of lymphoblastoid cell-lines and T cells, T cell-receptor-repertoire diversity, and T-cell reactivity upon co-culture with autologous lymphoblastoid cell lines were analyzed. Rapamycin and mycophenolic acid inhibited lymphoblastoid cell-line proliferation. T cells treated with prednisolone and rapamycin showed nearly normal cytokine production. Proliferation and the viability of T cells were decreased by mycophenolic acid, while tacrolimus and cyclosporin A were strong suppressors of T-cell function including their killing activity. Overall, our study provides a basis for the clinical decision for the modification and reduction of immunosuppression and adds information to the complex balance of maintaining anti-viral immunity while preventing acute rejection. Thus, an immunosuppressive regime based on mTOR inhibition and reduced or withdrawn calcineurin inhibitors could be a promising strategy for patients with increased risk of or manifested EBV-associated post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder.

The pre-exposure SARS-CoV-2-specific T cell repertoire determines the quality of the immune response to vaccination

SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination generates enormous host-response heterogeneity and an age-dependent loss of immune-response quality. How the pre-exposure T cell repertoire contributes to this heterogeneity is poorly understood. We combined analysis of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4⁺ T cells pre- and post-vaccination with longitudinal T cell receptor tracking. We identified strong pre-exposure T cell variability that correlated with subsequent immune-response quality and age. High-quality responses, defined by strong expansion of high-avidity spike-specific T cells, high interleukin-21 production, and specific immunoglobulin G, depended on an intact naive repertoire and exclusion of pre-existing memory T cells. In the elderly, T cell expansion from both compartments was severely compromised. Our results reveal that an intrinsic defect of the CD4⁺ T cell repertoire causes the age-dependent decline of immune-response quality against SARS-CoV-2 and highlight the need for alternative strategies to induce high-quality T cell responses against newly arising pathogens in the elderly.

Lower frequency of T stem cell memory (TSCM) cells in hepatitis B vaccine nonresponders

Despite the availability of an effective vaccine and antiviral treatments, hepatitis B is still a global public health problem. Hepatitis B vaccination can prevent the disease. Vaccination induces long-lasting protective immune memory, and the identification of memory cell subsets can indicate the effectiveness of vaccines. Here, we compared the frequency of CD4⁺ memory T cell subsets between responders and nonresponders to HB vaccination. Besides, the frequency of IFN-γ⁺ memory T cells was compared between studied groups. Study participants were grouped according to their anti-HBsAb titer. For restimulation of CD4⁺ memory T cells, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were cultured in the presence of HBsAg and PHA for 48 h. Besides, PMA, ionomycin, and brefeldin were added during the last 5 h of incubation to induce IFN-γ production. Flow cytometry was used for analysis. There was a statistically significant difference in the frequency of CD4⁺CD95⁺, CD4⁺CD95^Hi, and CD4⁺CD95^low/med T stem cell memory (T_SCM) cells between responder and nonresponder groups. However, the comparison of the frequency of memory T cells producing IFN-γ showed no differences. Our results identified a possible defect of immunological CD4⁺ memory T cell formation in nonresponders due to their lower frequency of CD4⁺ T_SCM cells.

Vaccine strain affects seroconversion after influenza vaccination in COPD patients and healthy older people

Though clinical guidelines recommend influenza vaccination for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients and other high-risk populations, it is unclear whether current vaccination strategies induce optimal antibody responses. This study aimed to identify key variables associated with strain-specific antibody responses in COPD patients and healthy older people. 76 COPD and 72 healthy participants were recruited from two Australian centres and inoculated with influenza vaccine. Serum strain-specific antibody titres were measured pre- and post-inoculation. Seroconversion rate was the primary endpoint. Antibody responses varied between vaccine strains. The highest rates of seroconversion were seen with novel strains (36-55%), with lesser responses to strains included in the vaccine in more than one consecutive year (27-33%). Vaccine responses were similar in COPD patients and healthy participants. Vaccine strain, hypertension and latitude were independent predictors of seroconversion. Our findings reassure that influenza vaccination is equally immunogenic in COPD patients and healthy older people; however, there is room for improvement. There may be a need to personalise the yearly influenza vaccine, including consideration of pre-existing antibody titres, in order to target gaps in individual antibody repertoires and improve protection.

Adaptive Immune Receptor Repertoire (AIRR) Community Guide to Repertoire Analysis

Adaptive immune receptor repertoires (AIRRs) are rich with information that can be mined for insights into the workings of the immune system. Gene usage, CDR3 properties, clonal lineage structure, and sequence diversity are all capable of revealing the dynamic immune response to perturbation by disease, vaccination, or other interventions. Here we focus on a conceptual introduction to the many aspects of repertoire analysis and orient the reader toward the uses and advantages of each. Along the way, we note some of the many software tools that have been developed for these investigations and link the ideas discussed to chapters on methods provided elsewhere in this volume.

[Choice of influenza vaccine in people over 65 years old. Analysis of reports from international vaccination advisory committees]

OBJECTIVE

Annual recommendations on influenza vaccine use in different countries are developed by influenza-specific working groups within their Immunization Advisory Committees. Adults aged 65 years and over are included in the groups for which vaccination against influenza is particularly recommended due to the morbidity associated. A variety of influenza vaccines are available, some of which boosted immunity, are licensed for use only in this specific age group, where the immune response to traditional influenza vaccines may be suboptimal. We analyze the main annual recommendations on the use of the influenza vaccine issued by advisory committees on immunization for the population over 65 years of age.

METHODS

The latest influenza vaccination guidelines have been selected and the recommendations for people over 65 years of age published by the main vaccination advisory committees have been reviewed.

RESULTS

The UK Advisory Committee (JCVI) recommends the use of Quadruvalent Inactivated Influenza Vaccine with Adjuvant (aQIV) or High Dose Quadrivalent Inactivated Influenza Vaccine (QIV-HD). The US committee (ACIP) does not express a preference for any type of vaccine. The Australian committee (ATAGI) preferably recommends adjuvanted influenza vaccine. The advisory committees of Canada and Germany (NACI, STIKO) and the European Center for Disease Control (Ecdc) recommend using any of the age-appropriate flu vaccines available, although they bet on the The UK Advisory Committee (JCVI) recommends the use of Quadruvalent Inactivated Influenza Vaccine with Adjuvant (aQIV) or High Dose Quadrivalent Inactivated Influenza Vaccine (QIV-HD). The US committee (ACIP) does not express a preference for any type of vaccine. The Australian committee (ATAGI) preferably recommends adjuvanted influenza vaccine. The advisory committees of Canada and Germany (NACI, STIKO) and the European Center for Disease Control (Ecdc) recommend using any of the age-appropriate flu vaccines available, although they bet on the use of inactivated quadrivalent flu vaccine high dose at the individual level for those over 65 years.use of inactivated quadrivalent flu vaccine high dose at the individual level for those over 65 years.

CONCLUSIONS

It is necessary further studies and improvement in their quality that analyze the different vaccines available and their comparability, although the use of reinforced immunity vaccines is generally recommended in the population over 65 years of age.

Detection of pre-existing SARS-CoV-2-reactive T cells in unexposed renal transplant patients

BACKGROUND

Recent data demonstrate potentially protective pre-existing T cells reactive against the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in samples of healthy blood donors, collected before the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Whether pre-existing immunity is also detectable in immunosuppressed patients is currently not known.

METHODS

Fifty-seven patients were included in this case-control study. We compared the frequency of SARS-CoV-2-reactive T cells in the samples of 20 renal transplant (RTx) patients to 20 age/gender matched non-immunosuppressed/immune competent healthy individuals collected before the onset of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Seventeen coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients were used as positive controls. T cell reactivity against Spike-, Nucleocapsid-, and Membrane- SARS-CoV-2 proteins were analyzed by multi-parameter flow cytometry. Antibodies were analyzed by neutralization assay.

RESULTS

Pre-existing SARS-CoV-2-reactive T cells were detected in the majority of unexposed patients and healthy individuals. In RTx patients, 13/20 showed CD4+ T cells reactive against at least one SARS-CoV-2 protein. CD8+ T cells reactive against at least one SARS-CoV-2 protein were demonstrated in 12/20 of RTx patients. The frequency and Th1 cytokine expression pattern of pre-formed SARS-CoV-2 reactive T cells did not differ between RTx and non-immunosuppressed healthy individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that the magnitude and functionality of pre-existing SARS-CoV-2 reactive T cell in transplant patients is non-inferior compared to the immune competent cohort. Although several pro-inflammatory cytokines were produced by the detected T cells, further studies are required to prove their antiviral protection.

The intratumoral CXCR3 chemokine system is predictive of chemotherapy response in human bladder cancer

Chemotherapy has direct toxic effects on cancer cells; however, long-term cancer control and complete remission are likely to involve CD8⁺ T cell immune responses. To study the role of CD8⁺ T cell infiltration in the success of chemotherapy, we examined patients with muscle invasive bladder cancer (MIBC) who were categorized on the basis of the response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy (NAC). We identified the intratumoral CXCR3 chemokine system (ligands and receptor splice variants) as a critical component for tumor eradication upon NAC in MIBC. Through characterization of CD8⁺ T cells, we found that stem-like T cell subpopulations with abundant CXCR3alt, a variant form of the CXCL11 receptor, responded to CXCL11 in culture as demonstrated by migration and enhanced effector function. In tumor biopsies of patients with MIBC accessed before treatment, CXCL11 abundance correlated with high numbers of tumor-infiltrating T cells and response to NAC. The presence of CXCR3alt and CXCL11 was associated with improved overall survival in MIBC. Evaluation of both CXCR3alt and CXCL11 enabled discrimination between responder and nonresponder patients with MIBC before treatment. We validated the prognostic role of the CXCR3-CXCL11 chemokine system in an independent cohort of chemotherapy-treated and chemotherapy-naïve patients with MIBC from data in TCGA. In summary, our data revealed stimulatory activity of the CXCR3alt-CXCL11 chemokine system on CD8⁺ T cells that is predictive of chemotherapy responsiveness in MIBC. This may offer immunotherapeutic options for targeted activation of intratumoral stem-like T cells in solid tumors.

Functional characterization of CD4+ T cell receptors crossreactive for SARS-CoV-2 and endemic coronaviruses

BACKGROUNDRecent studies have reported T cell immunity to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in unexposed donors, possibly due to crossrecognition by T cells specific for common cold coronaviruses (CCCs). True T cell crossreactivity, defined as the recognition by a single TCR of more than one distinct peptide-MHC ligand, has never been shown in the context of SARS-CoV-2.METHODSWe used the viral functional expansion of specific T cells (ViraFEST) platform to identify T cell responses crossreactive for the spike (S) glycoproteins of SARS-CoV-2 and CCCs at the T cell receptor (TCR) clonotype level in convalescent COVID-19 patients (CCPs) and SARS-CoV-2-unexposed donors. Confirmation of SARS-CoV-2/CCC crossreactivity and assessments of functional avidity were performed using a TCR cloning and transfection system.RESULTSMemory CD4+ T cell clonotypes that crossrecognized the S proteins of SARS-CoV-2 and at least one other CCC were detected in 65% of CCPs and unexposed donors. Several of these TCRs were shared among multiple donors. Crossreactive T cells demonstrated significantly impaired SARS-CoV-2-specific proliferation in vitro relative to monospecific CD4+ T cells, which was consistent with lower functional avidity of their TCRs for SARS-CoV-2 relative to CCC.CONCLUSIONSOur data confirm, for what we believe is the first time, the existence of unique memory CD4+ T cell clonotypes crossrecognizing SARS-CoV-2 and CCCs. The lower avidity of crossreactive TCRs for SARS-CoV-2 may be the result of antigenic imprinting, such that preexisting CCC-specific memory T cells have reduced expansive capacity upon SARS-CoV-2 infection. Further studies are needed to determine how these crossreactive T cell responses affect clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients.FUNDINGNIH funding (U54CA260492, P30CA006973, P41EB028239, R01AI153349, R01AI145435-A1, R21AI149760, and U19A1088791) was provided by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, the National Cancer Institute, and the National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering. The Bloomberg~Kimmel Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, The Johns Hopkins University Provost, and The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation provided funding for this study.

Robust hepatitis B vaccine-reactive T cell responses in failed humoral immunity

While virus-specific antibodies are broadly recognized as correlates of protection, virus-specific T cells are important for direct clearance of infected cells. Failure to generate hepatitis B virus (HBV)-specific antibodies is well-known in patients with end-stage renal disease. However, whether and to what extent HBV-specific cellular immunity is altered in this population and how it influences humoral immunity is not clear. To address it, we analyzed HBV-reactive T cells and antibodies in hemodialysis patients post vaccination. 29 hemodialysis patients and 10 healthy controls were enrolled in a cross-sectional study. Using multiparameter flow cytometry, HBV-reactive T cells were analyzed and functionally dissected based on granzyme B, interferon-γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-2 (IL-2), and IL-4 expression. Importantly, HBV-reactive CD4⁺ T cells were detected not only in all patients with sufficient titers but also in 70% of non-responders. Furthermore, a correlation between the magnitude of HBV-reactive CD4⁺ T cells and post-vaccination titers was observed. In summary, our data showed that HBV-reactive polyfunctional T cells were present in the majority of hemodialysis patients even if humoral immunity failed. Further studies are required to confirm their in vivo antiviral capacity. The ability to induce vaccine-reactive T cells paves new ways for improved vaccination and therapy protocols.

Broadly Reactive H2 Hemagglutinin Vaccines Elicit Cross-Reactive Antibodies in Ferrets Preimmune to Seasonal Influenza A Viruses

Influenza vaccines have traditionally been tested in naive mice and ferrets. However, humans are first exposed to influenza viruses within the first few years of their lives. Therefore, there is a pressing need to test influenza virus vaccines in animal models that have been previously exposed to influenza viruses before being vaccinated. In this study, previously described H2 computationally optimized broadly reactive antigen (COBRA) hemagglutinin (HA) vaccines (Z1 and Z5) were tested in influenza virus “preimmune” ferret models. Ferrets were infected with historical, seasonal influenza viruses to establish preimmunity. These preimmune ferrets were then vaccinated with either COBRA H2 HA recombinant proteins or wild-type H2 HA recombinant proteins in a prime-boost regimen. A set of naive preimmune or nonpreimmune ferrets were also vaccinated to control for the effects of the multiple different preimmunities. All of the ferrets were then challenged with a swine H2N3 influenza virus. Ferrets with preexisting immune responses influenced recombinant H2 HA-elicited antibodies following vaccination, as measured by hemagglutination inhibition (HAI) and classical neutralization assays. Having both H3N2 and H1N1 immunological memory regardless of the order of exposure significantly decreased viral nasal wash titers and completely protected all ferrets from both morbidity and mortality, including the mock-vaccinated ferrets in the group. While the vast majority of the preimmune ferrets were protected from both morbidity and mortality across all of the different preimmunities, the Z1 COBRA HA-vaccinated ferrets had significantly higher antibody titers and recognized the highest number of H2 influenza viruses in a classical neutralization assay compared to the other H2 HA vaccines.

IMPORTANCE H1N1 and H3N2 influenza viruses have cocirculated in the human population since 1977. Nearly every human alive today has antibodies and memory B and T cells against these two subtypes of influenza viruses. H2N2 influenza viruses caused the 1957 global pandemic and people born after 1968 have never been exposed to H2 influenza viruses. It is quite likely that a future H2 influenza virus could transmit within the human population and start a new global pandemic, since the majority of people alive today are immunologically naive to viruses of this subtype. Therefore, an effective vaccine for H2 influenza viruses should be tested in an animal model with previous exposure to influenza viruses that have circulated in humans. Ferrets were infected with historical influenza A viruses to more accurately mimic the immune responses in people who have preexisting immune responses to seasonal influenza viruses. In this study, preimmune ferrets were vaccinated with wild-type (WT) and COBRA H2 recombinant HA proteins in order to examine the effects that preexisting immunity to seasonal human influenza viruses have on the elicitation of broadly cross-reactive antibodies from heterologous vaccination.

Current Status of COVID-19 Vaccine Development: Focusing on Antigen Design and Clinical Trials on Later Stages

The global outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is still threatening human health, economy, and social life worldwide. As a counteraction for this devastating disease, a number of vaccines are being developed with unprecedented speed combined with new technologies. As COVID-19 vaccines are being developed in the absence of a licensed human coronavirus vaccine, there remain further questions regarding the long-term efficacy and safety of the vaccines, as well as immunological mechanisms in depth. This review article discusses the current status of COVID-19 vaccine development, mainly focusing on antigen design, clinical trials in later stages, and immunological considerations for further study.

COVID-19-Induced ARDS Is Associated with Decreased Frequency of Activated Memory/Effector T Cells Expressing CD11a+

Preventing the progression to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in COVID-19 is an unsolved challenge. The involvement of T cell immunity in this exacerbation remains unclear. To identify predictive markers of COVID-19 progress and outcome, we analyzed peripheral blood of 10 COVID-19-associated ARDS patients and 35 mild/moderate COVID-19 patients, not requiring intensive care. Using multi-parametric flow cytometry, we compared quantitative, phenotypic, and functional characteristics of circulating bulk immune cells, as well as SARS-CoV-2 S-protein-reactive T cells between the two groups. ARDS patients demonstrated significantly higher S-protein-reactive CD4+ and CD8+ T cells compared to non-ARDS patients. Of interest, comparison of circulating bulk T cells in ARDS patients to non-ARDS patients demonstrated decreased frequencies of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell subsets, with activated memory/effector T cells expressing tissue migration molecule CD11a++. Importantly, survival from ARDS (4/10) was accompanied by a recovery of the CD11a++ T cell subsets in peripheral blood. Conclusively, data on S-protein-reactive polyfunctional T cells indicate the ability of ARDS patients to generate antiviral protection. Furthermore, decreased frequencies of activated memory/effector T cells expressing tissue migratory molecule CD11a++ observed in circulation of ARDS patients might suggest their involvement in ARDS development and propose the CD11a-based immune signature as a possible prognostic marker.

Epitope similarity cannot explain the pre-formed T cell immunity towards structural SARS-CoV-2 proteins

The current pandemic is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus and large progress in understanding the pathology of the virus has been made since its emergence in late 2019. Several reports indicate short lasting immunity against endemic coronaviruses, which contrasts studies showing that biobanked venous blood contains T cells reactive to SARS-CoV-2 S-protein even before the outbreak in Wuhan. This suggests a preformed T cell memory towards structural proteins in individuals not exposed to SARS-CoV-2. Given the similarity of SARS-CoV-2 to other members of the Coronaviridae family, the endemic coronaviruses appear likely candidates to generate this T cell memory. However, given the apparent poor immunological memory created by the endemic coronaviruses, immunity against other common pathogens might offer an alternative explanation. Here, we utilize a combination of epitope prediction and similarity to common human pathogens to identify potential sources of the SARS-CoV-2 T cell memory. Although beta-coronaviruses are the most likely candidates to explain the pre-existing SARS-CoV-2 reactive T cells in uninfected individuals, the SARS-CoV-2 epitopes with the highest similarity to those from beta-coronaviruses are confined to replication associated proteins-not the host interacting S-protein. Thus, our study suggests that the observed SARS-CoV-2 pre-formed immunity to structural proteins is not driven by near-identical epitopes.

Recombinant HA-based vaccine outperforms split and subunit vaccines in elicitation of influenza-specific CD4 T cells and CD4 T cell-dependent antibody responses in humans

Although traditional egg-based inactivated influenza vaccines can protect against infection, there have been significant efforts to develop improved formats to overcome disadvantages of this platform. Here, we have assessed human CD4 T cell responses to a traditional egg-based influenza vaccine with recently available cell-derived vaccines and recombinant baculovirus-derived vaccines. Adults were administered either egg-derived Fluzone^®, mammalian cell-derived Flucelvax^® or recombinant HA (Flublok^®). CD4 T cell responses to each HA protein were assessed by cytokine EliSpot and intracellular staining assays. The specificity and magnitude of antibody responses were quantified by ELISA and HAI assays. By all criteria, Flublok vaccine exhibited superior performance in eliciting both CD4 T cell responses and HA-specific antibody responses, whether measured by mean response magnitude or percent of responders. Although the mechanism(s) underlying this advantage is not yet clear, it is likely that both qualitative and quantitative features of the vaccines impact the response.

Influenza sequelae: from immune modulation to persistent alveolitis

Acute influenza virus infections are a global public health concern accounting for millions of illnesses worldwide ranging from mild to severe with, at time, severe complications. Once an individual is infected, the immune system is triggered in response to the pathogen. This immune response can be beneficial ultimately leading to the clearance of the viral infection and establishment of immune memory mechanisms. However, it can be detrimental by increasing susceptibility to secondary bacterial infections and resulting in permanent changes to the lung architecture, in the form of fibrotic sequelae. Here, we review influenza associated bacterial super-infection, the formation of T-cell memory, and persistent lung injury resulting from influenza infection.

Propionate supplementation promotes the expansion of peripheral regulatory T-Cells in patients with end-stage renal disease

Patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) suffer from a progressively increasing low-grade systemic inflammation, which is associated with higher morbidity and mortality. Regulatory T cells (Tregs) play an important role in regulation of the inflammatory process. Previously, it has been demonstrated that short-chain fatty acids reduce inflammation in the central nervous system in a murine model of multiple sclerosis through an increase in tissue infiltrating Tregs. Here, we evaluated the effect of the short-chain fatty acid propionate on the chronic inflammatory state and T-cell composition in ESRD patients. Analyzing ESRD patients and healthy blood donors before, during, and 60 days after the propionate supplementation by multiparametric flow cytometry we observed a gradual and significant expansion in the frequencies of CD25^highCD127^- Tregs in both groups. Phenotypic characterization suggests that polarization of naïve T cells towards Tregs is responsible for the observed expansion. In line with this, we observed a significant reduction of inflammatory marker CRP under propionate supplementation. Of interest, the observed anti-inflammatory surroundings did not affect the protective pathogen-specific immunity as demonstrated by the stable frequencies of effector/memory T cells specific for tetanus/diphtheria recall antigens. Collectively, our data suggest that dietary supplements with propionate have a beneficial effect on the elevated systemic inflammation of ESRD patients. The effect can be achieved through an expansion of circulating Tregs without affecting the protective pathogen-reactive immunity.