Exosome and virus infection

Rho-GTPases subfamily: cellular defectors orchestrating viral infection

Ras homolog gene family-guanosine triphosphatases (Rho-GTPases), key molecular switches regulating cytoskeletal dynamics and cellular signaling, play a pivotal role in viral infections by modulating critical processes such as viral entry, replication, and release. This review elucidates the intricate mechanisms through which Rho-GTPases, via interactions with guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs), GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs), and other signaling pathways, including the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt), rat sarcoma (Ras), and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) pathways, facilitate viral pathogenesis. Specific viruses, such as influenza A virus (IAV), herpesviruses, human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), exploit Rho-GTPase-mediated cytoskeletal reorganization to enhance infectivity. For example, Rho-GTPases promote actin remodeling and membrane fusion, which are essential for viral entry and intracellular transport. Furthermore, Rho-GTPases modulate immune responses, often suppressing antiviral defenses to favor viral replication. Despite these insights, the molecular mechanisms underlying Rho-GTPase regulation during viral infections remain incompletely understood. Future research should focus on delineating the precise roles of Rho-GTPases in distinct viral life cycles, uncovering novel regulatory mechanisms, and developing targeted antiviral therapies that selectively inhibit Rho-GTPase signaling without compromising host cell functions. Such advancements could pave the way for broad-spectrum antiviral strategies, particularly against viruses that heavily rely on cytoskeletal manipulation for infection.

Beyond Infection: The Role of Secreted Viral Proteins in Pathogenesis, Disease Severity and Diagnostic Applications

Secreted viral proteins are crucial in virus-host interactions, as they modify the host microenvironment to promote infection. These secreted proteins could alter immune and inflammatory responses, allowing viruses to evade defense mechanisms such as cytotoxic T cell activation and antibody neutralization. Some secreted proteins mimic host molecules to suppress antiviral responses, making them valuable targets for antivirals and diagnostics. Notable examples include BARF1 from Epstein-Barr virus, associated with gastric cancer; vIL-10 from Epstein-Barr virus, which regulates immune responses and contributes to autoimmune diseases; NS1 from dengue virus, associated with vascular permeability and early diagnosis; and NSP4 from rotavirus as an enterotoxin, among others. The study of these proteins improves our understanding of viral pathogenesis and helps to develop innovative treatments for infectious and non-infectious diseases, taking advantage of the evolutionary adaptations of viruses. This review explores their impact on the infection cycle, disease progression, and key processes, such as cell cycle regulation, apoptosis, and cell signaling. Research on these proteins deepens our basic knowledge of virology and generates alternative methods for detecting biomarkers and creating more effective therapies, as well as implementing some emerging technologies, such as biosensors and plasmon resonance, for the diagnosis of viral diseases.

Changes and application prospects of biomolecular materials in small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) after flavivirus infection

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), also known as exosomes, are membranous vesicles filled with various proteins and nucleic acids, serving as a communication vector between cells. Recent research has highlighted their role in viral diseases. This review synthesizes current understanding of viral sEVs and includes recent findings on sEVs infected with flaviviruses. It discusses the implications of viral sEVs research for advancing arbovirus sEVs research and anticipates the potential applications of sEVs in flavivirus infections.

Viral Membrane-Targeting Amphipathic Helical Peptide-Based Fluorogenic Probes for the Analysis of Infectious Titers of Enveloped Viruses

Enveloped viruses have caused the majority of epidemics and pandemics over the past decade. Direct sensing of virus particles (virions) holds great potential for the functional analysis of enveloped viruses. Here, we explore a series of viral membrane-targeting amphipathic helical (AH) peptide-based molecular probes for the assessment of infectious titers of the human coronavirus 229E virus (HCoV-229E). The M2-protein-derived AH peptide is identified as a strong binder for HCoV-229E, and its conjugate with Nile Red, M2-NR, exhibits fluorogenic response upon selective binding to the viral membrane of HCoV-229E. We demonstrate that the response of M2-NR toward the HCoV-229E virus enables the rapid, simple, and reliable assessment of the infectivity of HCoV-229E. In addition, the present fluorescence assay for infectivity analysis is applicable to various kinds of enveloped virus including influenza A virus, herpes simplex virus-1, and lentivirus.

Giardiavirus infection alleviates growth restriction and intestinal damage caused by the intestinal parasite Giardia duodenalis

BACKGROUND

Giardia duodenalis is a prevalent intestinal pathogen causing giardiasis, a condition characterized by diarrhea and frequently linked to malnutrition and growth impairments in children. The virulence of Giardiavirus (GLV) may efficiently clear Giardia parasites from infected patients. However, we have a limited understanding of GLV transmission among Giardia species and GLV-infected Giardia's impact on pathogenicity.

METHODS

This study investigated extracellular vesicles (EVs) isolated via ultracentrifugation or exosome assay kit to detect the presence of GLV in EVs, the results were detected using ultrastructure and molecular methods, including transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and dot blot. Transwell migration assays confirmed the spread of GLV-enveloped EVs among Giardia species using inhibitor experiments and immunofluorescence. Mice gavaged with Giardia, with or without GLV infection, were assessed for disease progression, including growth parameters (weight and size gains), intestinal permeability, and pathology.

RESULTS

Parts of GLV exploit the Giardia EVs pathway to reach the extracellular environment, allowing GLV to spread among Giardia species via these EVs. The uptake of GLV-containing EVs by Giardia results in rapid trophozoite infection, and GLV wrapped in EVs also offers protection against external interference. Importantly, EV-coated GLV-infected Giardia leads to divergent clinical symptoms in mice, posing less risk to mice and reducing symptoms, such as emaciation, stunted growth, and lesion damage, compared with GLV-free Giardia-infected mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our studies show that GLV wrapped in EVs can spread among Giardia species, and GLV infection alleviates the lesions caused by Giardia. These findings reveal that GLV could be a target for the development of novel intervention strategies against Giardia.

Exosomes and tumor virus interlink: A complex side of cancer

Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) based cancer research reveals several complicated sides of cancer. EVs are classified as several subpopulations such as microvesicles, apoptotic bodies, and exosomes. In cancer, exosomes play a significant role as a cellular messenger in tumor development and progression. Tumor-derived exosomes (TEXs) are also a theranostic tool for cancer. Tumor virus-infected cell-derived EVs promote cancer development. Exosomes (a subpopulation of EVs) play a significant role in converting noninfecting cells to infected cells. It transports several biological active cargo (DNA, RNA, protein, and virions) towards the noninfected cells. This cellular transport enhances infection rates via reprogramming of noninfected cells. In this review, we explore tumor viruses, exosomes and tumor viruses interlink, the theranostic landscape of exosomes in tumor virus-associated cancer and the future orientation of exosomes-based virus oncology.

Exosomes: intriguing mediators of intercellular communication in the organism's response to noxious agents

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles that range from 30 to 150 nm in size and are formed through cellular endocytosis. They consist of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids at varying ratios and quantities. The composition and spatiotemporal dynamics of exosomes suggest that they play a crucial role in intercellular communication. The information conveyed by exosomes significantly impacts the regulation of health and disease states in the organism. The term "noxious" refers to all harmful environmental agents and conditions that can disrupt the physiological equilibrium and induce pathological states, regardless whether of radiological, biological, or chemical origin. This review comprehensively examines the presence of such noxious agents within the organism in relation to exosome formation and function. Furthermore, it explores the cause-effect relationship between noxious agents and exosomes, aiming to restore physiological homeostasis and prepare the organism for defence against harmful agents. Regardless of the specific bioinformatic content associated with each noxious agent, synthesis of data on the interactions between various types of noxious agents and exosomes reveals that an organized defence against these agents is unachievable without the support of exosomes. Consequently, exosomes are identified as the primary communication and information system within an organism, with their content being pivotal in maintaining the health-disease balance.

Exosomes and SARS-CoV-2 infection

Exosomes, which are small extracellular vesicles, are of particular interest in studies on SARS-CoV-2 infection because of their crucial role in intercellular communication. These vesicles are released by several cell types and are rich in "cargo" such as proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, which are vital for regulating immune response and viral pathogenesis. Exosomes have been reported to be involved in viral transmission, immune escape mechanisms, and illness development in SARS-CoV-2 infection. This review examines the current research on the contribution of exosomes to the interplay between the virus and host cells, highlighting their potential as diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets in combating COVID-19.

A State-of-the-Art Review on the Recent Advances in Exosomes in Oncogenic Virus

Background and Aims

Oncogenic viruses are responsible for approximately 12% of human malignancies, influencing various cancer processes through intricate interactions with host cells. Exosomes (EXOs), nanometric-sized microvesicles involved in cell communication, have emerged as critical mediators in these interactions. This review aims to explore the mechanisms by which EXOs produced by cells infected with oncogenic viruses promote cancer growth, enhance viral transmissibility, and act as immunomodulators.

Methods

A comprehensive review was conducted, focusing on recent studies highlighting the mechanisms by which EXOs facilitate the oncogenic potential of viruses. The analysis included the characterization of exosomal content, such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and proteins, and their effects on tumor microenvironments and immune responses. A search was performed using databases including PubMed, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. MeSH keywords related to EXOs, oncogenic viruses, and cancer were used to retrieve relevant review, systematic, and research articles.

Results

Findings indicate that EXOs from oncogenic virus-infected cells carry viral components that facilitate infection and inflammation. These EXOs alter the tumor microenvironment, contributing to the development of virus-associated cancers. Additionally, the review highlights the growing interest among researchers regarding the implications of EXOs in cancer progression and their potential role in enhancing the oncogenicity of viruses.

Conclusion

The findings underscore the pivotal role of EXOs in mediating the oncogenic effects of viruses, suggesting that targeting exosomal pathways may provide new therapeutic avenues for managing virus-associated cancers. Further research is needed to fully elucidate the functional mechanisms of EXOs in viral oncogenesis.

Exosomal microRNA as a key regulator of PI3K/AKT pathways in human tumors

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are conserved non-protein-coding RNAs that are naturally present in organisms and can control gene expression by suppressing the translation of mRNA or causing the degradation of mRNA. MicroRNAs are highly concentrated in the PI3K/AKT pathway, and abnormal activation of the PI3K/AKT pathway plays a role in cancer progression. The AKT/PI3K pathway is critical for cellular functions and can be stimulated by cytokines and in normal situations. It is involved in regulating various intracellular signal transduction, including development, differentiation, transcriptional regulation, protein, and synthesis. There is a growing body of evidence indicating that miRNAs, which are abundant in exosomes released by different cells, can control cellular biological activities via modulating the PI3K/AKT pathway, hence influencing cancer progression and drug resistance. This article provides an overview of the latest research progress regarding the function and medical use of the PI3K/AKT pathway and exosomal miRNA/AKT/PI3K axis in the behaviors of cancer cells.

Hijacking host extracellular vesicle machinery by hepatotropic viruses: current understandings and future prospects

Recent advances in studies exploring the roles of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in viral transmission and replication have illuminated hepatotropic viruses, such as hepatitis A (HAV), hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), hepatitis D (HDV), and hepatitis E (HEV). While previous investigations have uncovered these viruses' ability to exploit cellular EV pathways for replication and transmission, most have focused on the impacts of exosomal pathways. With an improved understanding of EVs, four main subtypes, including exosomes, microvesicles, large oncosomes, and apoptotic bodies, have been categorized based on size and biogenic pathways. However, there remains a noticeable gap in comprehensive reviews summarizing recent findings and outlining future perspectives for EV studies related to hepatotropic viruses. This review aims to consolidate insights into EV pathways utilized by hepatotropic viruses, offering guidance for the future research direction in this field. By comprehending the diverse range of hepatotropic virus-associated EVs and their role in cellular communication during productive viral infections, this review may offer valuable insights for targeting therapeutics and devising strategies to combat virulent hepatotropic virus infections and the associated incidence of liver cancer.

Effects of WuHuTang on the function and autophagy of dendritic cells treated with exosomes induced by RSV

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

WuHuTang (WHT) is a traditional Chinese medicine compound for treating asthma, and the evidence supports that it has a good effect on acute asthma attacks in children and adults. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is an important factor in the pathogenesis of acute asthma attacks, and the effect on dendritic cells is the key to its pathogenesis. Previous studies have confirmed that the pathogenesis of viruses is related to exosomes. However, there are few studies on the exosomes induced by RSV. Whether WHT can improve the changes caused by RSV-induced exosomes or not is worthy of further exploration.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We aim to study the effects of RSV-induced exosomes on the function and autophagy of dendritic cells, and to observe the intervention effect of WHT serum on the above effects.

METHODS

The co-culture model of exosomes derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells induced by RSV (BMSCs-Exo-RSV) and dendritic cells was established, and then WHT serum was used to intervene. After 24 h of intervention, the CCK-8 method, flow cytometry, Elisa, RT-qCPR, and Western blot were used to detect the above-mentioned culture model.

RESULTS

RSV-induced exosomes had certain effects on viability, apoptosis, and costimulatory molecules generation of dendritic cells. At the same time, the levels of IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α, and autophagy increased, while the levels of IL-4, IL-10, and TGF-β decreased, and the AKT/TSC/mTOR pathway was inhibited. WHT serum could activate this pathway and reverse the above changes in dendritic cells.

CONCLUSION

This study reveals that the pathogenic effect of RSV is related to the exosomes induced by RSV. The exosomes induced by RSV affect the function of dendritic cells by inhibiting the AKT/TSC/mTOR pathway, which can be activated by WHT to reverse the effects caused by RSV-induced exosomes.

Milk-derived exosomes in the regulation of nutritional and immune functions

Milk-derived exosomes (MDEs), being a component of milk, have the potential to support immune system maturation in offspring and enhance immune cell proliferation. Through the transport and transmission of essential signaling molecules, MDEs contribute to the regulation of intergenerational and intraspecies communication, thereby impacting nutrient uptake and metabolic functions. A comprehensive comprehension of MDE functionalities is imperative for enhancing the quality of the dairy industry. A systematic search of the databases PubMed/Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus utilizing predetermined keywords resulted in the identification of 418 articles, of which 67 were chosen for inclusion in this review, which specifically explores the intersection of immune response and nutrition. This article provides a critical analysis of the classification of extracellular vesicles, the mechanisms underlying the biosynthesis of microvesicular dietary exosomes (MDEs), the components of MDEs, and their relevance in the contexts of nutrition and immune modulation. The primary aim of this review was to offer valuable scholarly insights to support the advancement and practical application of MDEs.

Plant viruses exploit insect salivary GAPDH to modulate plant defenses

Salivary proteins of insect herbivores can suppress plant defenses, but the roles of many remain elusive. One such protein is glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) from the saliva of the Recilia dorsalis (RdGAPDH) leafhopper, which is known to transmit rice gall dwarf virus (RGDV). Here we show that RdGAPDH was loaded into exosomes and released from salivary glands into the rice phloem through an exosomal pathway as R. dorsalis fed. In infected salivary glands of R. dorsalis, the virus upregulated the accumulation and subsequent release of exosomal RdGAPDH into the phloem. Once released, RdGAPDH consumed H2O2 in rice plants owing to its -SH groups reacting with H2O2. This reduction in H2O2 of rice plant facilitated R. dorsalis feeding and consequently promoted RGDV transmission. However, overoxidation of RdGAPDH could cause potential irreversible cytotoxicity to rice plants. In response, rice launched emergency defense by utilizing glutathione to S-glutathionylate the oxidization products of RdGAPDH. This process counteracts the potential cellular damage from RdGAPDH overoxidation, helping plant to maintain a normal phenotype. Additionally, salivary GAPDHs from other hemipterans vectors similarly suppressed H2O2 burst in plants. We propose a strategy by which plant viruses exploit insect salivary proteins to modulate plant defenses, thus enabling sustainable insect feeding and facilitating viral transmission.

Exosomes-mediated transmission of standard bovine viral diarrhea strain OregonC24Va in bovine trophoblast cells

Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV) can infect cows on days 30-110 of gestation and crossing the placental barrier, resulting in persistently infected (PI) and causing significant economic losses to dairy farming. Bovine placental trophoblast cells (BTCs) are the major cells in the early chorionic tissue of the placenta and play important roles in placental resistance to viral transmission. In this study, we have confirmed that BTCs is among a groups of cell types those could be infected by BVDV in vivo, and BVDV infection stimulates the autophagic responses in BTCs and promotes the release of exosomes. Meanwhile, the exosomes derived from BTCs can be used by BVDV to spread between placental trophoblast cells, and this mode of transmission cannot be blocked by antibodies against the BVDV E2 protein, whereas the replication and spread of BVDV in BTCs can be blocked by inhibiting autophagy and exosomogenesis. Our study provides a theoretical and practical basis for scientific prediction and intervention of reproductive disorders caused by BVDV infection in cows of different gestation periods from a novel perspective.

An In-Depth Approach to the Associations between MicroRNAs and Viral Load in Patients with Chronic Hepatitis B-A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Scientists study the molecular activities of the hepatitis B virus (HBV). However, in vivo experiments are scarce. Some microRNAs are HBV-related, but their exact mechanisms are unknown. Our study provides an up-to-date view of the associations between microRNAs and HBV-DNA levels in chronically infected individuals. We conducted this large-scale research on five databases according to PRISMA guidance. Joanna Briggs Institute tools and Newcastle Ottawa Quality Assessment scores helped with quality evaluations. R 4.2.2 performed statistical computations for the meta-analysis. DIANA-microT 2023 and g:Profiler enriched the predictions of liver genes associated with miR-122 and miR-192-5p. From the 1313 records, we eliminated those irrelevant to our theme, non-article methodologies, non-English entries, and duplicates. We assessed associations between microRNAs and HBV-DNA levels. Overall, the pooled correlations favoured the general idea of the connection between non-coding molecules and viremia levels. MiR-122 and miR-192-5p were the most researched microRNAs, significantly associated with HBV-DNA levels. The connections between miR-122, miR-192-5p, let-7, miR-215, miR-320, and viral loads need further in vivo assessment. To conclude, this study evaluates systematically, for the first time, the correlations between non-coding molecules and viremia levels in patients. Our meta-analysis emphasizes potentially important pathways toward new inhibitors of the viral replication cycle.

Exosomal ssc-miR-1343 targets FAM131C to regulate porcine epidemic diarrhea virus infection in pigs

The porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) causes diarrhea in piglets, thereby causing very significant economic losses for the global swine industry. In previous studies, it has been confirmed that microRNAs (miRNAs) play an important role in the infection caused by PEDV. However, the precise molecular mechanism of miRNAs in the regulation of PEDV infection is still not fully understood. In the present study, we utilized miRNA-seq analysis to identify ssc-miR-1343 with differential expression between PEDV-infected and normal piglets. The expression of ssc-miR-1343 was detected in isolated exosomes, and it was found to be significantly higher than that in the controls following PEDV infection. The ssc-miR-1343 mimic was found to decrease PEDV replication, whereas the ssc-miR-1343 inhibitor was observed to increase PEDV replication, and ssc-miR-1343 was delivered by exosomes during PEDV infection. Mechanistically, ssc-miR-1343 binds to the 3'UTR region of FAM131C, down-regulating its expression, and FAM131C has been shown to enhance PEDV replication through simultaneously suppressing pathways associated with innate immunity. The ssc-miR-1343/FAM131C axis was found to upregulate the host immune response against PEDV infection. In conclusion, our findings indicate that the transport of ssc-miR-1343 in exosomes is involved in PEDV infection. This discovery presents a new potential target for the development of drugs to treat PEDV.

Exosomes: a review of biologic function, diagnostic and targeted therapy applications, and clinical trials

Exosomes are extracellular vesicles generated by all cells and they carry nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and metabolites. They mediate the exchange of substances between cells,thereby affecting biological properties and activities of recipient cells. In this review, we briefly discuss the composition of exocomes and exosome isolation. We also review the clinical applications of exosomes in cancer biology as well as strategies in exosome-mediated targeted drug delivery systems. Finally, the application of exosomes in the context of cancer therapeutics both in practice and literature are discussed.

Harnessing crosstalk between extracellular vesicles and viruses for disease diagnostics and therapeutics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are increasingly acknowledged as important mediators of intercellular communication, closely related to the occurrence and development of a variety of diseases. Numerous studies have demonstrated that EVs play a multifaceted role in the infection process of viral diseases, elucidating their ability to both facilitate viral spread and inhibit infection progression. These versatile entities not only enhance infection rates and widen the scope of viral infection through the transmission of entire viruses or viral genomes, but also trigger antiviral responses and prompt cytokine secretion near the infection site, thereby fortifying the host's defense mechanisms and safeguarding neighboring cells against infection. This complicated crosstalk between EVs and viral infections prompts a deeper exploration into their roles in potential clinical applications. In this review, we aim to encapsulate the recent advances in understanding the intricate interplay between viruses and EVs, shedding light on the mechanisms underlying this vesicle-to-virion crosstalk. Furthermore, we underscore the significance of harnessing this knowledge for diagnostic and therapeutic functions in combating viral diseases.

Recent advances in the use of extracellular vesicles from adipose-derived stem cells for regenerative medical therapeutics

Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) are a subset of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) isolated from adipose tissue. They possess remarkable properties, including multipotency, self-renewal, and easy clinical availability. ADSCs are also capable of promoting tissue regeneration through the secretion of various cytokines, factors, and extracellular vesicles (EVs). ADSC-derived EVs (ADSC-EVs) act as intercellular signaling mediators that encapsulate a range of biomolecules. These EVs have been found to mediate the therapeutic activities of donor cells by promoting the proliferation and migration of effector cells, facilitating angiogenesis, modulating immunity, and performing other specific functions in different tissues. Compared to the donor cells themselves, ADSC-EVs offer advantages such as fewer safety concerns and more convenient transportation and storage for clinical application. As a result, these EVs have received significant attention as cell-free therapeutic agents with potential future application in regenerative medicine. In this review, we focus on recent research progress regarding regenerative medical use of ADSC-EVs across various medical conditions, including wound healing, chronic limb ischemia, angiogenesis, myocardial infarction, diabetic nephropathy, fat graft survival, bone regeneration, cartilage regeneration, tendinopathy and tendon healing, peripheral nerve regeneration, and acute lung injury, among others. We also discuss the underlying mechanisms responsible for inducing these therapeutic effects. We believe that deciphering the biological properties, therapeutic effects, and underlying mechanisms associated with ADSC-EVs will provide a foundation for developing a novel therapeutic approach in regenerative medicine.

Exosomes target HBV-host interactions to remodel the hepatic immune microenvironment

Chronic hepatitis B poses a significant global burden, modulating immune cells, leading to chronic inflammation and long-term damage. Due to its hepatotropism, the hepatitis B virus (HBV) cannot infect other cells. The mechanisms underlying the intercellular communication among different liver cells in HBV-infected individuals and the immune microenvironment imbalance remain elusive. Exosomes, as important intercellular communication and cargo transportation tools between HBV-infected hepatocytes and immune cells, have been shown to assist in HBV cargo transportation and regulate the immune microenvironment. However, the role of exosomes in hepatitis B has only gradually received attention in recent years. Minimal literature has systematically elaborated on the role of exosomes in reshaping the immune microenvironment of the liver. This review unfolds sequentially based on the biological processes of exosomes: exosomes' biogenesis, release, transport, uptake by recipient cells, and their impact on recipient cells. We delineate how HBV influences the biogenesis of exosomes, utilizing exosomal covert transmission, and reshapes the hepatic immune microenvironment. And based on the characteristics and functions of exosomes, potential applications of exosomes in hepatitis B are summarized and predicted.

Dendritic cell-derived exosome (DEX) therapy for digestive system cancers: Recent advances and future prospect

Tumor-mediated immunosuppression is a fundamental obstacle to the development of dendritic cell (DC)-based cancer vaccines, which despite their ability to stimulate host anti-tumor CD8 T cell immunity, have not been able to generate meaningful therapeutic responses. Exosomes are inactive membrane vesicles that are nanoscale in size and are produced by the endocytic pathway. They are essential for intercellular communication. Additionally, DC-derived exosomes (DEXs) contained MHC class I/II (MHCI/II), which is frequently complexed with antigens and co-stimulatory molecules and is therefore able to prime CD4 and CD8 T cells that are specific to particular antigens. Indeed, vaccines with DEXs have been shown to exhibit better anti-tumor efficacy in eradicating tumors compared to DC vaccines in pre-clinical models of digestive system tumors. Also, there is room for improvement in the tumor antigenic peptide (TAA) selection process. DCs release highly targeted exosomes when the right antigenic peptide is chosen, which could aid in the creation of DEX-based antitumor vaccines that elicit more targeted immune responses. Coupled with their resistance to tumor immunosuppression, DEXs-based cancer vaccines have been heralded as the superior alternative cell-free therapeutic vaccines over DC vaccines to treat digestive system tumors. In this review, current studies of DEXs cancer vaccines as well as potential future directions will be deliberated.

Exosomal circ_0000735 contributes to non-small lung cancer malignant progression

Circular RNA is an important regulator for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Circ_0000735 has been found to be significantly overexpressed in NSCLC tissues. Therefore, its role and mechanism in NSCLC progression need to be further explored. The expression levels of circ_0000735, miR-345-5p and A disintegrin and metalloprotease 19 (ADAM19) were determined using quantitative real-time PCR. EdU staining, wound healing and transwell assays were utilized to detect cell proliferation and metastasis. The protein levels of metastasis markers, exosome markers and ADAM19 were determined using western blot. Animal experiments were performed to confirm the role of circ_0000735 in NSCLC tumorigenesis. The exosomes from cells and serum were identified using transmission electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis. We found that circ_0000735 was upregulated in NSCLC, and its knockdown repressed NSCLC cell proliferation and metastasis. In terms of mechanism, circ_0000735 targeted miR-345-5p to regulate ADAM19. MiR-345-5p inhibitor reversed the suppressive effect of circ_0000735 knockdown on NSCLC progression, and ADAM19 overexpression abolished the inhibition effect of miR-345-5p on NSCLC progression. Also, animal experiments showed that silencing of circ_0000735 reduced NSCLC tumorigenesis. In addition, exosomes mediated the intercellular transmission of circ_0000735, and serum exosomal circ_0000735 might be an important indicator for the diagnosis of NSCLC. In conclusion, circ_0000735 facilitated NSCLC progression via miR-345-5p/ADAM19 pathway, and serum exosomal circ_0000735 might be a potential biomarker for NSCLC diagnosis.

Exosome-Mediated Antigen Delivery: Unveiling Novel Strategies in Viral Infection Control and Vaccine Design

Exosomes are small subtypes of extracellular vesicles (EVs) naturally released by different types of cells into their environment. Their physiological roles appear to be multiple, yet many aspects of their biological activities remain to be understood. These vesicles can transport and deliver a variety of cargoes and may serve as unconventional secretory vesicles. Thus, they play a crucial role as important vectors for intercellular communication and the maintenance of homeostasis. Exosome production and content can vary under several stresses or modifications in the cell microenvironment, influencing cellular responses and stimulating immunity. During infectious processes, exosomes are described as double-edged swords, displaying both beneficial and detrimental effects. Owing to their tractability, the analysis of EVs from multiple biofluids has become a booming tool for monitoring various pathologies, from infectious to cancerous origins. In this review, we present an overview of exosome features and discuss their particular and ambiguous functions in infectious contexts. We then focus on their properties as diagnostic or therapeutic tools. In this regard, we explore the capacity of exosomes to vectorize immunogenic viral antigens and their function in mounting adaptive immune responses. As exosomes provide interesting platforms for antigen presentation, we further review the available data on exosome engineering, which enables peptides of interest to be exposed at their surface. In the light of all these data, exosomes are emerging as promising avenues for vaccine strategies.

Nanotechnology's frontier in combatting infectious and inflammatory diseases: prevention and treatment

Inflammation-associated diseases encompass a range of infectious diseases and non-infectious inflammatory diseases, which continuously pose one of the most serious threats to human health, attributed to factors such as the emergence of new pathogens, increasing drug resistance, changes in living environments and lifestyles, and the aging population. Despite rapid advancements in mechanistic research and drug development for these diseases, current treatments often have limited efficacy and notable side effects, necessitating the development of more effective and targeted anti-inflammatory therapies. In recent years, the rapid development of nanotechnology has provided crucial technological support for the prevention, treatment, and detection of inflammation-associated diseases. Various types of nanoparticles (NPs) play significant roles, serving as vaccine vehicles to enhance immunogenicity and as drug carriers to improve targeting and bioavailability. NPs can also directly combat pathogens and inflammation. In addition, nanotechnology has facilitated the development of biosensors for pathogen detection and imaging techniques for inflammatory diseases. This review categorizes and characterizes different types of NPs, summarizes their applications in the prevention, treatment, and detection of infectious and inflammatory diseases. It also discusses the challenges associated with clinical translation in this field and explores the latest developments and prospects. In conclusion, nanotechnology opens up new possibilities for the comprehensive management of infectious and inflammatory diseases.

A state-of-the-art review of the recent advances in exosome isolation and detection methods in viral infection

Proteins, RNA, DNA, lipids, and carbohydrates are only some of the molecular components found in exosomes released by tumor cells. They play an essential role in healthy and diseased cells as messengers of short- and long-distance intercellular communication. However, since exosomes are released by every kind of cell and may be found in blood and other bodily fluids, they may one day serve as biomarkers for a wide range of disorders. In many pathological conditions, including cancer, inflammation, and infection, they play a role. It has been shown that the biogenesis of exosomes is analogous to that of viruses and that the exosomal cargo plays an essential role in the propagation, dissemination, and infection of several viruses. Bidirectional modulation of the immune response is achieved by the ability of exosomes associated with viruses to facilitate immunological escape and stimulate the body's antiviral immune response. Recently, exosomes have received a lot of interest due to their potential therapeutic use as biomarkers for viral infections such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), Hepatitis B virus (HBV), Hepatitis C virus (HCV), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), and SARS-CoV-2. This article discusses the purification procedures and detection techniques for exosomes and examines the research on exosomes as a biomarker of viral infection.

Host Subcellular Organelles: Targets of Viral Manipulation

Viruses have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to manipulate host cell processes and utilize intracellular organelles to facilitate their replication. These complex interactions between viruses and cellular organelles allow them to hijack the cellular machinery and impair homeostasis. Moreover, viral infection alters the cell membrane's structure and composition and induces vesicle formation to facilitate intracellular trafficking of viral components. However, the research focus has predominantly been on the immune response elicited by viruses, often overlooking the significant alterations that viruses induce in cellular organelles. Gaining a deeper understanding of these virus-induced cellular changes is crucial for elucidating the full life cycle of viruses and developing potent antiviral therapies. Exploring virus-induced cellular changes could substantially improve our understanding of viral infection mechanisms.

Exosome-mediated regulation of inflammatory pathway during respiratory viral disease

Viruses have developed many mechanisms by which they can stimulate or inhibit inflammation and cause various diseases, including viral respiratory diseases that kill many people every year. One of the mechanisms that viruses use to induce or inhibit inflammation is exosomes. Exosomes are small membrane nanovesicles (30-150 nm) released from cells that contain proteins, DNA, and coding and non-coding RNA species. They are a group of extracellular vesicles that cells can take up to produce and mediate communication. Intercellular effect exosomes can deliver a broad confine of biological molecules, containing nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids, to the target cell, where they can convey therapeutic or pathogenic consequences through the modulation of inflammation and immune processes. Recent research has shown that exosomes can deliver entire virus genomes or virions to distant target cells, then the delivered viruses can escape the immune system and infect cells. Adenoviruses, orthomyxoviruses, paramyxoviruses, respiratory syncytial viruses, picornaviruses, coronaviruses, and rhinoviruses are mostly related to respiratory diseases. In this article, we will first discuss the current knowledge of exosomes. We will learn about the relationship between exosomes and viral infections, and We mention the inflammations caused by viruses in the airways, the role of exosomes in them, and finally, we examine the relationship between the viruses as mentioned earlier, and the regulation of inflammatory pathways that play a role in causing the disease.

Exosomes: Friends or Foes in Microbial Infections?

The use of new approaches is necessary to address the global issue of infections caused by drug-resistant pathogens. Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) is a promising approach that reduces the emergence of drug resistance, and no resistance has been reported thus far. APDT involves using a photosensitizer (PS), a light source, and oxygen. The mechanism of aPDT is that a specific wavelength of light is directed at the PS in the presence of oxygen, which activates the PS and generates reactive oxygen species (ROS), consequently causing damage to microbial cells. However, due to the PS's poor stability, low solubility in water, and limited bioavailability, it is necessary to employ drug delivery platforms to enhance the effectiveness of PS in photodynamic therapy (PDT). Exosomes are considered a desirable carrier for PS due to their specific characteristics, such as low immunogenicity, innate stability, and high ability to penetrate cells, making them a promising platform for drug delivery. Additionally, exosomes also possess antimicrobial properties, although in some cases, they may enhance microbial pathogenicity. As there are limited studies on the use of exosomes for drug delivery in microbial infections, this review aims to present significant points that can provide accurate insights.

Exosomal MicroRNA and Protein Profiles of Hepatitis B Virus-Related Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cells

Infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a main risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Extracellular vesicles, such as exosomes, play an important role in tumor development and metastasis, including regulation of HBV-related HCC. In this study, we have characterized exosome microRNA and proteins released in vitro from hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related HCC cell lines SNU-423 and SNU-182 and immortalized normal hepatocyte cell lines (THLE2 and THLE3) using microRNA sequencing and mass spectrometry. Bioinformatics, including functional enrichment and network analysis, combined with survival analysis using data related to HCC in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, were applied to examine the prognostic significance of the results. More than 40 microRNAs and 200 proteins were significantly dysregulated (p < 0.05) in the exosomes released from HCC cells in comparison with the normal liver cells. The functional analysis of the differentially expressed exosomal miRNAs (i.e., mir-483, mir-133a, mir-34a, mir-155, mir-183, mir-182), their predicted targets, and exosomal differentially expressed proteins (i.e., POSTN, STAM, EXOC8, SNX9, COL1A2, IDH1, FN1) showed correlation with pathways associated with HBV, virus activity and invasion, exosome formation and adhesion, and exogenous protein binding. The results from this study may help in our understanding of the role of HBV infection in the development of HCC and in the development of new targets for treatment or non-invasive predictive biomarkers of HCC.