Diverse drug delivery systems for the enhancement of cancer immunotherapy: an overview

Evaluating the Drug Delivery Capacity of 3D Coordination Polymer for Anticancer Drugs

We synthesized {[Cd2(dTMP)2(4,4'-azpy)2(H2O)2] ⋅ 3(O)}n a novel three-dimensional metal nucleotide coordination polymer (CP-1). An assessment of the CP-1 binding affinity for anticancer drugs was conducted using molecular dynamic simulations. The virtual screening results depict that CP-1 has a lot of potential for encapsulating the anthracycline anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). It hasn't yet been investigated how to accomplish high loading capacity, efficiency, and controlled release of DOX in dTMP-based 3D metal coordination polymers. Utilizing DOX as a drug model and our system as a drug-loading vehicle, we used UV-visible and circular dichroism titrations to examine the effects of its encapsulation and release. The mechanism of drug loading and release was investigated through pH-responsive behavior by adjusting the pH value to 8, 7, 6, and 5. The results indicate the CP-1 has a robust affinity for DOX at pH 7, which facilitates its loading on 3D porous coordination polymer. However, the maximum cumulative drug release of 87.11 % was observed at pH 5. The higher correlation coefficient (R2) was obtained at pH 5 with the Higuchi equation. It indicated that the drug released was primarily controlled with the diffusion mechanism. The CP-1 polymer's ability to encapsulate DOX while also permitting a possible controlled-release mechanism is confirmed by the combined insights from the experimental findings, energy graphs, RMSD analysis, and radius of gyration (Rg) data from MD simulations.

A comprehensive review on the latest advances of dimeric anticancer prodrugs

The advancement of targeted drug delivery systems has opened up a wide array of opportunities in cancer therapy, leading to the exploration of various strategies. Among these, the use of prodrugs stands out as a particularly promising approach in targeted cancer treatment, aimed at enhancing the selectivity and effectiveness of cytotoxic agents. In the last few years, there has been considerable progress in the area of dimeric-based prodrugs aimed at cancer therapy. The advantages presented by dimeric-based prodrugs have significantly improved the efficiency of delivering anticancer drugs, characterized by a high drug loading capacity, advantageous pharmacokinetics, and drug release that responds to tumor stimuli. With respect to the importance of drug dimerization in the field of prodrug development, herein we review the latest reports covering research in dimeric prodrugs. We have categorized the article according to the reported anticancer agents. We have also spent a great deal of attention on different types of used linkers and methods of the dissociation of dimeric prodrugs into free monomeric drugs. Readers will easily be able to compare between the reported research using the same drugs with different linkers or different dissociation methods as well as different cancer cell lines targeted in the studies.

Comprehensive Methodology for Evaluating the Drug Loading of Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Using Combined Magnetometry and Mössbauer Spectroscopy

A methodology for the quantitative estimation of the drug loading of iron oxide-based magnetic nanoparticles by corroborating magnetometry and Mössbauer spectroscopy investigations is reported. The proposed methodology is exemplified in the case of two series of nanoparticles, namely Fe3O4 nanoparticles covered with citric acid molecules and further functionalized with doxorubicin, and Fe3O4 nanoparticles covered with L-Cysteine molecules and further functionalized with doxorubicin. The general idea of the proposed methodology is to probe the real magnetic structure of the magnetic core via low-temperature Mössbauer spectroscopy for the correct estimation of the spontaneous magnetization of the magnetic core. It subsequently uses the ratio between the spontaneous magnetization of the covered nanoparticles and that of the magnetic core for the reliable and nondestructive evaluation of the nanoparticle loading by organic molecules. Although the methodology is exemplified in the case of magnetite-based nanoparticles, it can be successfully considered for a large class of medicine-loaded Fe-containing magnetic nanoparticles where 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy can be applied.

Emerging advances in drug delivery systems (DDSs) for optimizing cancer complications

The management and treatment of tumor complications pose continuous challenges due to the inherent complexity. However, the advent of drug delivery systems (DDSs) brings promising opportunities to address the tumor complications using innovative technological approaches. This review focuses on common oncological complications, including cancer thrombosis, malignant serous effusion, tumor-associated infections, cancer pain, and treatment-related complications. Emphasis was placed on the application and potential of DDSs in mitigating and treating these tumor complications, and we delved into the underlying mechanisms of common cancer-associated complications, discussed the limitations of conventional treatments, and outlined the current status and potential development of DDSs for various complications in this review. Moreover, we have discussed the existing challenges in DDSs research, underscoring the need for addressing issues related to biocompatibility and targeting of DDSs, optimizing drug delivery routes, and enhancing delivery efficiency and precision. In conclusion, DDSs offer promising avenues for treating cancer complications, offering the potential for the development of more effective and safer drug delivery strategies, thereby improving the quality of life and survival rates of cancer patients.

Injecting hope: the potential of intratumoral immunotherapy for locally advanced and metastatic cancer

Despite enormous progress, advanced cancers are still one of the most serious medical problems in current society. Although various agents and therapeutic strategies with anticancer activity are known and used, they often fail to achieve satisfactory long-term patient outcomes and survival. Recently, immunotherapy has shown success in patients by harnessing important interactions between the immune system and cancer. However, many of these therapies lead to frequent side effects when administered systemically, prompting treatment modifications or discontinuation or, in severe cases, fatalities. New therapeutic approaches like intratumoral immunotherapy, characterized by reduced side effects, cost, and systemic toxicity, offer promising prospects for future applications in clinical oncology. In the context of locally advanced or metastatic cancer, combining diverse immunotherapeutic and other treatment strategies targeting multiple cancer hallmarks appears crucial. Such combination therapies hold promise for improving patient outcomes and survival and for promoting a sustained systemic response. This review aims to provide a current overview of immunotherapeutic approaches, specifically focusing on the intratumoral administration of drugs in patients with locally advanced and metastatic cancers. It also explores the integration of intratumoral administration with other modalities to maximize therapeutic response. Additionally, the review summarizes recent advances in intratumoral immunotherapy and discusses novel therapeutic approaches, outlining future directions in the field.

Drug Delivery System for Cancer Immunotherapy: Potential Roles, Challenge and Recent Advances

Immunotherapy has emerged as a pivotal advancement in oncological therapeutics, representing a paradigm shift from conventional treatment modalities including surgery, radiotherapy, and chemotherapy. This innovative approach demonstrates considerable clinical potential through its capacity to enhance systemic anti-tumor responses via active or passive immunomodulation. Compared to traditional therapies, immunotherapy offers distinct advantages such as broad applicability, rapid therapeutic onset, and reduced adverse effects. However, critical challenges persist in clinical implementation, particularly concerning treatment safety and efficacy optimization. Current limitations, including drug off-target effects and biological delivery barriers, frequently result in suboptimal therapeutic outcomes and severe complications such as autoimmune disorders and nonspecific inflammation. Recently advancements in drug delivery systems (DDS) present transformative solutions to these challenges. Sophisticated DDS platforms enable precise spatiotemporal delivery of tumor antigens, immunotherapeutic agents, and immunostimulatory molecules, thereby achieving targeted modulation of diverse immune cell populations. This technological innovation not only enhances therapeutic efficacy but also significantly mitigates adverse reactions, while facilitating synergistic combinations with conventional cancer treatments. In this review, we outline the application of new drug delivery platforms in major malignancies (including but not limited to melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, hormone receptor-positive breast cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma). We further propose evidence-based optimization strategies for next-generation delivery platforms, aiming to bridge the gap between preclinical development and clinical implementation in cancer immunotherapy.

Photocaging of amino acids and short peptides by arylidenethiazoles: mechanism, photochemical characteristics and biological behaviour

A series of fluorophores based on the (5-methyl-4-phenylthiazol-2-yl)-3-phenylacrylonitrile (MPTA) core were designed and synthesised for photocaging of amino acids and peptides. The photophysical characteristics of these compounds and their hybrids with biomolecules were thoroughly investigated through a joint experimental, spectral and computational approach. The photorelease ability of the obtained amino acids-MPTA and peptides-MPTA hybrids was studied under various conditions, including different UV irradiation wavelength and power, and solvents. The main reaction products were identified using high-performance liquid chromatography combined with high-resolution mass spectrometry. Photo uncaging kinetics was quantitatively studied using absorption spectroscopy. The mechanism of photorelease of amino acids and peptides was elucidated through quantum mechanical calculations, which were also used for the exploration of photophysical properties of the excited states, and photodissociation energetics quantification. Relationships between the structure of fluorophores and photodissociation characteristics were estimated, and fluorophores with the good uncaging characteristics (biomolecule photoreleasing yield, uncaging rate, and effectiveness) were identified. Cell viability assays using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide or MTT showed a low cytotoxicity of the hybrids. Confocal microscopy revealed the easy penetration of the hybrids into living cells and their selective accumulation in the endoplasmic reticulum, lipid droplets and mitochondria, depending on their chemical structure.

Targeted Delivery to Dying Cells Through P-Selectin-PSGL-1 Axis: A Promising Strategy for Enhanced Drug Efficacy in Liver Injury Models

To minimize off-target adverse effects and improve drug efficacy, various tissue-specific drug delivery systems have been developed. However, even in diseased organs, both normal and stressed, dying cells coexist, and a targeted delivery system specifically for dying cells has yet to be explored to mitigate off-target effects within the same organ. This study aimed to establish such a system. By examining the surfaces of dying cells in vitro, we identified P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1) as a universal marker for dying cells, positioning it as a potential target for selective drug delivery. We demonstrated that liposomes conjugated with the PSGL-1 binding protein P-selectin had significantly greater binding efficiency to dying cells compared to control proteins such as E-selectin, L-selectin, galectin-1, and C-type lectin-like receptor 2. Using thioacetamide (TAA) to induce hepatitis and hepatocyte damage in mice, we assessed the effectiveness of our P-selectin-based delivery system. In vivo, P-selectin-conjugated liposomes effectively delivered fluorescent dye and the apoptosis inhibitor z-DEVD to TAA-damaged livers in wild-type mice, but not in PSGL-1 knockout mice. In TAA-treated wild-type mice, unconjugated liposomes required a 100-fold higher z-DEVD dose compared to P-selectin-conjugated liposomes to achieve a comparable, albeit less effective, therapeutic outcome in lowering plasma alanine transaminase levels and alleviating thrombocytopenia. This emphasizes that P-selectin conjugation enhances drug delivery efficiency by approximately 100-fold in mice. These results suggest that P-selectin-based liposomes could be a promising strategy for targeted drug delivery, enabling both diagnosis and treatment by specifically delivering cell-labeling agents and rescue agents to dying cells via the P-selectin-PSGL-1 axis at the individual cell level.

Preclinical pharmacology of patient-derived extracellular vesicles for the intraoperative imaging of tumors

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from the plasma of oncological patients exhibit significant tumor-targeting properties, unlike those from healthy individuals. We have previously shown the feasibility of formulating the near-infrared (NIR) fluorescent dye indocyanine green (ICG) with patient-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs) for selective delivery to neoplastic tissue. This staining protocol holds promise for clinical application in intraoperative tumor margin imaging, enabling precise neoplastic tissue resection. To this end, we propose the ONCOGREEN protocol, involving PDEV isolation, ICG loading, and reinfusion into the same patients. Methods: By in vivo studies on mice, we outlined key pharmacological parameters of PDEVs-ICG for intraoperative tumor imaging, PDEV biodistribution kinetics, and potential treatment-related toxicological effects. Additionally, we established a plasmapheresis-based protocol for isolating autologous PDEVs, ensuring the necessary large-scale dosage for human treatment. A potential lyophilization-based preservation method was also explored to facilitate the storage and transport of PDEVs. Results: The study identified the effective dose of PDEVs-ICG necessary for clear intraoperative tumor margin imaging. The biodistribution kinetics of PDEVs showed favorable targeting to neoplastic tissues, without off-target distribution. Toxicological assessments revealed no significant adverse effects associated with the treatment. The plasmapheresis-based isolation protocol successfully yielded a sufficient quantity of autologous PDEVs, and the lyophilization preservation method maintained the functional integrity of PDEVs for subsequent clinical application. Conclusions: Our research lays the groundwork for the direct clinical application of autologous PDEVs, initially focusing on intraoperative imaging. Utilizing autologous PDEVs has the potential to accelerate the integration of EVs as a targeted delivery tool for anti-neoplastic agents to cancerous tissue. This approach promises to enhance the precision of neoplastic tissue resection and improve overall surgical outcomes for oncological patients.

Research progress of sorafenib drug delivery system in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: An update

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent malignant tumors in the contemporary era, representing a significant global health concern. Early HCC patients have mild symptoms or are asymptomatic, which promotes the onset and progression of the disease. Moreover, advanced HCC is insensitive to chemotherapy, making traditional clinical treatment unable to block cancer development. Sorafenib (SFB) is a first-line targeted drug for advanced HCC patients with anti-angiogenesis and anti-tumor cell proliferation effects. However, the efficacy of SFB is constrained by its off-target distribution, rapid metabolism, and multi-drug resistance. In recent years, nanoparticles based on a variety of materials have been demonstrated to enhance the targeting and therapeutic efficacy of SFB against HCC. Concurrently, the advent of joint drug delivery systems has furnished crucial empirical evidence for reversing SFB resistance. This review will summarize the application of nanotechnology in the field of HCC treatment over the past five years. It will focus on the research progress of SFB delivery systems combined with multiple therapeutic modalities in HCC treatment.

Revolutionizing cellular energy: The convergence of mitochondrial dynamics and delivery technologies

The intersection of mitochondrial dynamics and delivery technologies heralds a paradigm shift in cellular biology and therapeutic intervention. Mitochondrial dynamics, encompassing fusion, fission, transport, and mitophagy, are critical for cellular energy production, signaling, and homeostasis. Dysregulation of these processes is implicated in a myriad of diseases, including neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, and cancer. Concurrently, advances in delivery technologies, such as nanocarriers, targeted delivery systems, and gene editing tools, offer unprecedented opportunities to manipulate mitochondrial function directly. This review synthesizes current knowledge on mitochondrial dynamics, examines recent breakthroughs in targeted delivery methods, and explores their potential convergence to modulate cellular energetics for therapeutic purposes. By integrating insights from biology, chemistry, and bioengineering, this review highlights the innovative approaches being developed to enhance mitochondrial function, underscoring the potential of this convergence to address complex diseases. This interdisciplinary perspective not only broadens our understanding of cellular processes but also paves the way for novel therapeutic strategies, marking a significant step forward in the quest for precision medicine and targeted interventions in mitochondrial-related diseases.

Cutting-edge approaches for targeted drug delivery in breast cancer: beyond conventional therapies

Breast cancer is a global health challenge with staggering statistics underscoring its pervasive impact. The burden of this disease is measured in terms of its prevalence and the challenges it poses to healthcare systems, necessitating a closer look at its epidemiology and impact. Current breast cancer treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapies, have made significant strides in improving patient outcomes. However, they are not without limitations, often leading to adverse effects and the development of drug resistance. This comprehensive review delves into the complex landscape of breast cancer, including its incidence, current treatment modalities, and the inherent limitations of existing therapeutic approaches. It also sheds light on the promising role of nanotechnology, encompassing both inorganic and organic nanoparticles equipped with the ability to selectively deliver therapeutic agents to tumor sites, in the battle against breast cancer. The review also addresses the emerging therapies, their associated challenges, and the future prospects of targeted drug delivery in breast cancer management.

A Holographic-Type Model in the Description of Polymer-Drug Delivery Processes

A unitary model of drug release dynamics is proposed, assuming that the polymer-drug system can be assimilated into a multifractal mathematical object. Then, we made a description of drug release dynamics that implies, via Scale Relativity Theory, the functionality of continuous and undifferentiable curves (fractal or multifractal curves), possibly leading to holographic-like behaviors. At such a conjuncture, the Schrödinger and Madelung multifractal scenarios become compatible: in the Schrödinger multifractal scenario, various modes of drug release can be "mimicked" (via period doubling, damped oscillations, modulated and "chaotic" regimes), while the Madelung multifractal scenario involves multifractal diffusion laws (Fickian and non-Fickian diffusions). In conclusion, we propose a unitary model for describing release dynamics in polymer-drug systems. In the model proposed, the polymer-drug dynamics can be described by employing the Scale Relativity Theory in the monofractal case or also in the multifractal one.