1
|
Kotsifaki DG, Rajiv Singh R, Nic Chormaic S, Truong VG. Asymmetric split-ring plasmonic nanostructures for the optical sensing of Escherichia coli. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2023; 14:4875-4887. [PMID: 37791281 PMCID: PMC10545205 DOI: 10.1364/boe.497820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023]
Abstract
Strategies for in-liquid micro-organism detection are crucial for the clinical and pharmaceutical industries. While Raman spectroscopy is a promising label-free technique for micro-organism detection, it remains challenging due to the weak bacterial Raman signals. In this work, we exploit the unique electromagnetic properties of metamaterials to identify bacterial components in liquid using an array of Fano-resonant metamolecules. This Fano-enhanced Raman scattering (FERS) platform is designed to exhibit a Fano resonance close to the protein amide group fingerprint around 6030 nm. Raman signatures of Escherichia coli were recorded at several locations on the metamaterial under off-resonance laser excitation at 530 nm, where the photodamage effect is minimized. As the sizes of the Escherichia coli are comparable to the micro-gaps i.e, 0.41 µm, of the metamaterials, its local immobilisation leads to an increase in the Raman sensitivity. We also observed that the time-dependent FERS signal related to bacterial amide peaks increased during the bacteria's mid-exponential phase while it decreased during the stationary phase. This work provides a new set of opportunities for developing ultrasensitive FERS platforms suitable for large-scale applications and could be particularly useful for diagnostics and environmental studies at off-resonance excitation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Domna G. Kotsifaki
- Light-Matter Interactions for Quantum Technologies Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna 904-0495 Okinawa, Japan
- Division of Natural and Applied Sciences, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, 215316 Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ranjan Rajiv Singh
- Information Processing Biology Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna 904-0495 Okinawa, Japan
| | - Síle Nic Chormaic
- Light-Matter Interactions for Quantum Technologies Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna 904-0495 Okinawa, Japan
| | - Viet Giang Truong
- Light-Matter Interactions for Quantum Technologies Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Onna 904-0495 Okinawa, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Chen X, Li Y, Bai K, Gu M, Xu X, Jiang N, Chen Y, Li J, Luo L. Class A Penicillin-Binding Protein C Is Responsible for Stress Response by Regulation of Peptidoglycan Assembly in Clavibacter michiganensis. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0181622. [PMID: 36040162 PMCID: PMC9603630 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01816-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The cell wall peptidoglycan of bacteria is essential for their survival and shape development. The penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are responsible for the terminal stage of peptidoglycan assembly. It has been shown that PBPC, a member of class A high-molecular-weight PBP, played an important role in morphology maintenance and stress response in Clavibacter michiganensis. Here, we reported the stress response strategies under viable but nonculturable (VBNC) state and revealed the regulation of peptidoglycan assembly by PBPC in C. michiganensis cells. Using atomic force microscopy imaging, we found that peptidoglycan of C. michiganensis cells displayed a relatively smooth and dense surface, whereas ΔpbpC was characterized by a "ridge-and-groove" surface, which was more distinctive after Cu2+ treatment. The peptidoglycan layer of wild type cells exhibited a significant increase in thickness and slight increase in cross-linkage following Cu2+ treatment. Compared with wild type, the thickness and cross-linkage of peptidoglycan decreased during log phase in ΔpbpC cells, but the peptidoglycan cross-linkage increased significantly under Cu2+ stress, while the thickness did not change. It is noteworthy that the above changes in the peptidoglycan layer resulted in a significant increase in the accumulation of amylase and exopolysaccharide in ΔpbpC. This study elucidates the role of PBPC in Gram-positive rod-shaped plant pathogenic bacterium in response to environmental stimuli by regulating the assembling of cell wall peptidoglycan, which is significant in understanding the survival of C. michiganensis under stress and the field epidemiology of tomato bacterial canker disease. IMPORTANCE Peptidoglycan of cell walls in bacteria is a cross-linked and meshlike scaffold that provides strength to withstand the external pressure. The increased cross-linkage in peptidoglycan and altered structure in VBNC cells endowed the cell wall more resistant to adversities. Here we systematically evaluated the stress response strategies in Gram-positive rod-shaped bacterium C. michiganensis log phase cells and revealed a significant increase of peptidoglycan thickness and slight increase of cross-linkage after Cu2+ treatment. Most strikingly, knocking-out of PBPC leads to a significant increase in cross-linking of peptidoglycan in response to Cu2+ treatment. Understanding the stress resistance mechanism and survival strategy of phytopathogenic bacteria is the basis of exploring bacterial physiology and disease epidemiology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xing Chen
- Department of Plant Pathology and MOA Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, Beijing Key Laboratory of Seed Disease Testing and Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Crop Pest Management of Anhui Province, Key Laboratory of Biology and Sustainable Management of Plant Diseases and Pests of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yao Li
- Department of Plant Pathology and MOA Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, Beijing Key Laboratory of Seed Disease Testing and Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Kaihong Bai
- Department of Plant Pathology and MOA Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, Beijing Key Laboratory of Seed Disease Testing and Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Meng Gu
- Department of Plant Pathology and MOA Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, Beijing Key Laboratory of Seed Disease Testing and Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaoli Xu
- Department of Plant Pathology and MOA Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, Beijing Key Laboratory of Seed Disease Testing and Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Na Jiang
- Department of Plant Pathology and MOA Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, Beijing Key Laboratory of Seed Disease Testing and Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yu Chen
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Crop Pest Management of Anhui Province, Key Laboratory of Biology and Sustainable Management of Plant Diseases and Pests of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianqiang Li
- Department of Plant Pathology and MOA Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, Beijing Key Laboratory of Seed Disease Testing and Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Laixin Luo
- Department of Plant Pathology and MOA Key Laboratory of Pest Monitoring and Green Management, College of Plant Protection, Beijing Key Laboratory of Seed Disease Testing and Control, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Harish, Kumari S, Parihar J, Akash, Kumari J, Kumar L, Debnath M, Kumar V, Mishra RK, Gwag JS, Singhal R, Mukhopadhyay AK, Kumar P. Synthesis, Characterization, and Antibacterial Activity of Calcium Hydroxide Nanoparticles Against Gram‐Positive and Gram‐Negative Bacteria. ChemistrySelect 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202203094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Harish
- Department of Physics Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan India
| | - Sapna Kumari
- Department of Bioscience Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan
| | - Jagdish Parihar
- Department of Physics Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan India
- Department of Bioscience & Bioengineering Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) - Jodhpur Jodhpur 342001 Rajasthan India
| | - Akash
- Department of Physics Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan India
| | - Jyoti Kumari
- Department of Physics Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan India
| | - Lalit Kumar
- Department of Physics Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan India
| | - Mousumi Debnath
- Department of Bioscience Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan
| | - Vipin Kumar
- Department of Physics Yeungnam University Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 38541 South Korea
| | | | - Jin Seog Gwag
- Department of Physics Yeungnam University Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk 38541 South Korea
| | - Rahul Singhal
- Department of Physics Malaviya National Institute of Technology Jaipur 302017 India
| | - Anoop Kumar Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Physics Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan India
- Department of Physics Sharda School of Basic Sciences and Research Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310 Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Pushpendra Kumar
- Department of Physics Manipal University Jaipur Jaipur 303007 Rajasthan India
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
The Discovery of the Role of Outer Membrane Vesicles against Bacteria. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10102399. [PMID: 36289660 PMCID: PMC9598313 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10102399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Gram-negative bacteria are intrinsically resistant to many commercialized antibiotics. The outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria prevents the entry of such antibiotics. Outer membrane vesicles (OMV) are naturally released from the OM of Gram-negative bacteria for a range of purposes, including competition with other bacteria. OMV may carry, as part of the membrane or lumen, molecules with antibacterial activity. Such OMV can be exposed to and can fuse with the cell surface of different bacterial species. In this review we consider how OMV can be used as tools to deliver antimicrobial agents. This includes the characteristics of OMV production and how this process can be used to create the desired antibacterial activity of OMV.
Collapse
|
5
|
Sacher E. Comment on "High-Resolution Microscopical Studies of Contact Killing Mechanisms on Copper-Based Surfaces". ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:16959-16960. [PMID: 35380799 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c03324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In the original paper, Chang and co-workers describe the contact killing of Bacillus subtilis, a Gram-positive bacterium, on copper-containing substrates and offer a mechanism for its accomplishment. The present Comment offers support for that mechanism and adds a necessary initial step, the degradation of the overlying peptidoglycan lattice. Degradation is necessary because the lattice is too thick, and its pores too small, for substrate-membrane contact without it. A suggestion is offered as to how degradation is accomplished.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edward Sacher
- Département de Génie Physique, Polytechnique Montréal C. P. 6079, succursale C-V, Montréal, Québec H3C 3A7, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Liu P, Liu H, Semenec L, Yuan D, Yan S, Cain AK, Li M. Length-based separation of Bacillus subtilis bacterial populations by viscoelastic microfluidics. MICROSYSTEMS & NANOENGINEERING 2022; 8:7. [PMID: 35127130 PMCID: PMC8766588 DOI: 10.1038/s41378-021-00333-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrated the label-free continuous separation and enrichment of Bacillus subtilis populations based on length using viscoelastic microfluidics. B. subtilis, a gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium, has been widely used as a model organism and an industrial workhorse. B. subtilis can be arranged in different morphological forms, such as single rods, chains, and clumps, which reflect differences in cell types, phases of growth, genetic variation, and changing environmental factors. The ability to prepare B. subtilis populations with a uniform length is important for basic biological studies and efficient industrial applications. Here, we systematically investigated how flow rate ratio, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) concentration, and channel length affected the length-based separation of B. subtilis cells. The lateral positions of B. subtilis cells with varying morphologies in a straight rectangular microchannel were found to be dependent on cell length under the co-flow of viscoelastic and Newtonian fluids. Finally, we evaluated the ability of the viscoelastic microfluidic device to separate the two groups of B. subtilis cells by length (i.e., 1-5 μm and >5 μm) in terms of extraction purity (EP), extraction yield (EY), and enrichment factor (EF) and confirmed that the device could separate heterogeneous populations of bacteria using elasto-inertial effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ping Liu
- Suqian University, Suqian, 223800 China
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109 Australia
| | - Hangrui Liu
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109 Australia
| | - Lucie Semenec
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Department of Molecular Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109 Australia
| | - Dan Yuan
- Centre for Regional and Rural Futures, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3216 Australia
| | - Sheng Yan
- Institute for Advanced Study, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060 China
| | - Amy K. Cain
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Synthetic Biology, Department of Molecular Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109 Australia
| | - Ming Li
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109 Australia
- Biomolecular Discovery Research Centre, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109 Australia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Lenz P, Hilgers F, Burmeister A, Zimmermann L, Volkenborn K, Grünberger A, Kohlheyer D, Drepper T, Jaeger KE, Knapp A. The iSplit GFP assay detects intracellular recombinant proteins in Bacillus subtilis. Microb Cell Fact 2021; 20:174. [PMID: 34488765 PMCID: PMC8419962 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01663-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bacillus subtilis is one of the most important microorganisms for recombinant protein production. It possesses the GRAS (generally recognized as safe) status and a potent protein secretion capacity. Secretory protein production greatly facilitates downstream processing and thus significantly reduces costs. However, not all heterologous proteins are secreted and intracellular production poses difficulties for quantification. To tackle this problem, we have established a so-called intracellular split GFP (iSplit GFP) assay in B. subtilis as a tool for the in vivo protein detection during expression in batch cultures and at a single-cell level. For the iSplit GFP assay, the eleventh β-sheet of sfGFP is fused to a target protein and can complement a detector protein consisting of the respective truncated sfGFP (GFP1-10) to form fluorescent holo-GFP. RESULTS As proof of concept, the GFP11-tag was fused C-terminally to the E. coli β-glucuronidase GUS, resulting in fusion protein GUS11. Variable GUS and GUS11 production levels in B. subtilis were achieved by varying the ribosome binding site via spacers of increasing lengths (4-12 nucleotides) for the GUS-encoding gene. Differences in intracellular enzyme accumulation were determined by measuring the GUS11 enzymatic activity and subsequently by adding the detector protein to respective cell extracts. Moreover, the detector protein was co-produced with the GUS11 using a two-plasmid system, which enabled the in vivo detection and online monitoring of glucuronidase production. Using this system in combination with flow cytometry and microfluidics, we were able to monitor protein production at a single-cell level thus yielding information about intracellular protein distribution and culture heterogeneity. CONCLUSION Our results demonstrate that the iSplit GFP assay is suitable for the detection, quantification and online monitoring of recombinant protein production in B. subtilis during cultivation as well as for analyzing production heterogeneity and intracellular localization at a single-cell level.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Lenz
- Institute of Molecular Enzyme Technology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | - Fabienne Hilgers
- Institute of Molecular Enzyme Technology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | - Alina Burmeister
- Institute of Bio- and Geoscience, IBG-1: Biotechnology: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425, Jülich, Germany
- Multiscale Bioengineering, Bielefeld University, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Leonie Zimmermann
- Institute of Molecular Enzyme Technology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | - Kristina Volkenborn
- Institute of Molecular Enzyme Technology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | - Alexander Grünberger
- Institute of Bio- and Geoscience, IBG-1: Biotechnology: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425, Jülich, Germany
- Multiscale Bioengineering, Bielefeld University, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Dietrich Kohlheyer
- Institute of Bio- and Geoscience, IBG-1: Biotechnology: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425, Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Microscale Bioengineering (AVT.MSB), 52074, Aachen, Germany
| | - Thomas Drepper
- Institute of Molecular Enzyme Technology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | - Karl-Erich Jaeger
- Institute of Molecular Enzyme Technology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425, Jülich, Germany
- Institute of Bio- and Geoscience, IBG-1: Biotechnology: Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52425, Jülich, Germany
| | - Andreas Knapp
- Institute of Molecular Enzyme Technology, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425, Jülich, Germany.
- Castrol Germany GmbH, 41179, Mönchengladbach, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Janssen K, Low SL, Wang Y, Mu Q, Bierbaum G, Gee CT. Elucidating biofilm diversity on water lily leaves through 16S rRNA amplicon analysis: Comparison of four DNA extraction kits. APPLICATIONS IN PLANT SCIENCES 2021; 9:e11444. [PMID: 34504737 PMCID: PMC8419396 DOI: 10.1002/aps3.11444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Within a broader study on leaf fossilization in freshwater environments, a long-term study on the development and microbiome composition of biofilms on the foliage of aquatic plants has been initiated to understand how microbes and biofilms contribute to leaf decay and preservation. Here, water lily leaves are employed as a study model to investigate the relationship between bacterial microbiomes, biodegradation, and fossilization. We compare four DNA extraction kits to reduce biases in interpretation and to identify the most suitable kit for the extraction of DNA from bacteria associated with biofilms on decaying water lily leaves for 16S rRNA amplicon analysis. METHODS We extracted surface-associated DNA from Nymphaea leaves in early stages of decay at two water depth levels using four commercially available kits to identify the most suitable protocol for bacterial extraction, applying a mock microbial community standard to enable a reliable comparison of the kits. RESULTS Kit 4, the FastDNA Spin Kit for Soil, resulted in high DNA concentrations with better quality and yielded the most accurate depiction of the mock community. Comparison of the leaves at two water depths showed no significant differences in community composition. DISCUSSION The success of Kit 4 may be attributed to its use of bead beating with a homogenizer, which was more efficient in the lysis of Gram-positive bacteria than the manual vortexing protocols used by the other kits. Our results show that microbial composition on leaves during early decay remains comparable and may change only in later stages of decomposition.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathrin Janssen
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinic of Bonn, Rheinische Friedrich‐Wilhelms‐University Bonn, Venusberg‐Campus 153127BonnGermany
| | - Shook Ling Low
- Institute of Geosciences, Division of PaleontologyRheinische Friedrich‐Wilhelms‐University Bonn, Nussallee 853115BonnGermany
| | - Yan Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of SciencesMengla666303China
| | - Qi‐Yong Mu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Forest Ecology, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of SciencesMengla666303China
| | - Gabriele Bierbaum
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, University Clinic of Bonn, Rheinische Friedrich‐Wilhelms‐University Bonn, Venusberg‐Campus 153127BonnGermany
| | - Carole T. Gee
- Institute of Geosciences, Division of PaleontologyRheinische Friedrich‐Wilhelms‐University Bonn, Nussallee 853115BonnGermany
- Huntington Botanical Gardens1151 Oxford Road, San MarinoCalifornia91108USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Li K, Zhang PP, Chen XL, Zhang YZ, Su HN. Internal pressure-induced formation of hemispherical poles in Bacillus subtilis. Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 2021; 114:1205-1212. [PMID: 33973093 DOI: 10.1007/s10482-021-01590-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The cell of a rod-shaped bacterium is composed of a cylinder and two hemispherical poles. In recent decades, the molecular mechanism of morphogenesis in rod-shaped bacteria has received extensive research. However, most works have focused on the morphogenesis of cylinders, and the morphogenesis of the hemispherical poles remains unclear. In the past, the pole of bacterial cell wall was considered as a rigid hemispherical structure. However, our work indicated that the pole in the isolated sacculi from Bacillus subtilis was a flat structure instead of a hemisphere form. Further works showed that internal pressure was responsible for shaping the hemispherical poles, indicating an elastic nature of the cell wall in poles. In addition, we found that the internal pressure was able to transform septa into hemispherical shape which is similar to normal poles. Based on our work, we proposed a model for the internal pressure-induced formation of hemispherical poles in B. subtilis, and this work may provide new clues into basic knowledge of the morphogenesis of rod-shaped bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, and Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China.,Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Pan-Pan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, and Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Xiu-Lan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, and Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yu-Zhong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, and Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China.,College of Marine Life Sciences, and Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China.,Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Hai-Nan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, and Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Gilmore MC, Ritzl-Rinkenberger B, Cava F. An updated toolkit for exploring bacterial cell wall structure and dynamics. Fac Rev 2021; 10:14. [PMID: 33659932 PMCID: PMC7894271 DOI: 10.12703/r/10-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The bacterial cell wall is made primarily from peptidoglycan, a complex biomolecule which forms a bag-like exoskeleton that envelops the cell. As it is unique to bacteria and typically essential for their growth and survival, it represents one of the most successful targets for antibiotics. Although peptidoglycan has been studied intensively for over 50 years, the past decade has seen major steps in our understanding of this molecule because of the advent of new analytical and imaging methods. Here, we outline the most recent developments in tools that have helped to elucidate peptidoglycan structure and dynamics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael C Gilmore
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Barbara Ritzl-Rinkenberger
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Felipe Cava
- Laboratory for Molecular Infection Medicine Sweden (MIMS), Department of Molecular Biology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
New approaches and techniques for bacterial cell wall analysis. Curr Opin Microbiol 2021; 60:88-95. [PMID: 33631455 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2021.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Peptidoglycan (PG) has remained for decades in the spotlight of the never-ending battle against pathogenic bacteria as this essential bacterial structure is one of the most successful targets for antibiotics. Most of our current understanding about the composition, architecture, and dynamics of the PG relies on techniques which have experienced great technological and methodological improvements in the past years. Here we summarize recent advances in these methods with the intention to furnish a valuable resource for both PG experts and newcomers.
Collapse
|
12
|
Beaussart A, Feuillie C, El-Kirat-Chatel S. The microbial adhesive arsenal deciphered by atomic force microscopy. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:23885-23896. [PMID: 33289756 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr07492f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Microbes employ a variety of strategies to adhere to abiotic and biotic surfaces, as well as host cells. In addition to their surface physicochemical properties (e.g. charge, hydrophobic balance), microbes produce appendages (e.g. pili, fimbriae, flagella) and express adhesion proteins embedded in the cell wall or cell membrane, with adhesive domains targeting specific ligands or chemical properties. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is perfectly suited to deciphering the adhesive properties of microbial cells. Notably, AFM imaging has revealed the cell wall topographical organization of live cells at unprecedented resolution, and AFM has a dual capability to probe adhesion at the single-cell and single-molecule levels. AFM is thus a powerful tool for unravelling the molecular mechanisms of microbial adhesion at scales ranging from individual molecular interactions to the behaviours of entire cells. In this review, we cover some of the major breakthroughs facilitated by AFM in deciphering the microbial adhesive arsenal, including the exciting development of anti-adhesive strategies.
Collapse
|
13
|
Pospíšil J, Vítovská D, Kofroňová O, Muchová K, Šanderová H, Hubálek M, Šiková M, Modrák M, Benada O, Barák I, Krásný L. Bacterial nanotubes as a manifestation of cell death. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4963. [PMID: 33009406 PMCID: PMC7532143 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18800-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial nanotubes are membranous structures that have been reported to function as conduits between cells to exchange DNA, proteins, and nutrients. Here, we investigate the morphology and formation of bacterial nanotubes using Bacillus subtilis. We show that nanotube formation is associated with stress conditions, and is highly sensitive to the cells' genetic background, growth phase, and sample preparation methods. Remarkably, nanotubes appear to be extruded exclusively from dying cells, likely as a result of biophysical forces. Their emergence is extremely fast, occurring within seconds by cannibalizing the cell membrane. Subsequent experiments reveal that cell-to-cell transfer of non-conjugative plasmids depends strictly on the competence system of the cell, and not on nanotube formation. Our study thus supports the notion that bacterial nanotubes are a post mortem phenomenon involved in cell disintegration, and are unlikely to be involved in cytoplasmic content exchange between live cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jiří Pospíšil
- Laboratory of Microbial Genetics and Gene Expression, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Dragana Vítovská
- Laboratory of Microbial Genetics and Gene Expression, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Olga Kofroňová
- Laboratory of Molecular Structure Characterization, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Katarína Muchová
- Department of Microbial Genetics, Institute of Molecular Biology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 845 51, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Hana Šanderová
- Laboratory of Microbial Genetics and Gene Expression, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Hubálek
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 160 00, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Michaela Šiková
- Laboratory of Microbial Genetics and Gene Expression, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Modrák
- Laboratory of Bioinformatics/Core Facility, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Oldřich Benada
- Laboratory of Molecular Structure Characterization, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic.
| | - Imrich Barák
- Department of Microbial Genetics, Institute of Molecular Biology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 845 51, Bratislava, Slovakia.
| | - Libor Krásný
- Laboratory of Microbial Genetics and Gene Expression, Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, 142 20, Prague 4, Czech Republic.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Su HN, Li K, Zhao LS, Yuan XX, Zhang MY, Liu SM, Chen XL, Liu LN, Zhang YZ. Structural Visualization of Septum Formation in Staphylococcus warneri Using Atomic Force Microscopy. J Bacteriol 2020; 202:e00294-20. [PMID: 32900866 PMCID: PMC7484183 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00294-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell division of Staphylococcus adopts a "popping" mechanism that mediates extremely rapid separation of the septum. Elucidating the structure of the septum is crucial for understanding this exceptional bacterial cell division mechanism. Here, the septum structure of Staphylococcus warneri was extensively characterized using high-speed time-lapse confocal microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and electron microscopy. The cells of S. warneri divide in a fast popping manner on a millisecond timescale. Our results show that the septum is composed of two separable layers, providing a structural basis for the ultrafast daughter cell separation. The septum is formed progressively toward the center with nonuniform thickness of the septal disk in radial directions. The peptidoglycan on the inner surface of double-layered septa is organized into concentric rings, which are generated along with septum formation. Moreover, this study signifies the importance of new septum formation in initiating new cell cycles. This work unravels the structural basis underlying the popping mechanism that drives S. warneri cell division and reveals a generic structure of the bacterial cell.IMPORTANCE This work shows that the septum of Staphylococcus warneri is composed of two layers and that the peptidoglycan on the inner surface of the double-layered septum is organized into concentric rings. Moreover, new cell cycles of S. warneri can be initiated before the previous cell cycle is complete. This work advances our knowledge about a basic structure of bacterial cell and provides information on the double-layered structure of the septum for bacteria that divide with the "popping" mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hai-Nan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Kang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Long-Sheng Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiao-Xue Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Meng-Yao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Si-Min Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiu-Lan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lu-Ning Liu
- College of Marine Life Sciences and Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Yu-Zhong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
- College of Marine Life Sciences and Frontiers Science Center for Deep Ocean Multispheres and Earth System, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Tang BL, Yang J, Chen XL, Wang P, Zhao HL, Su HN, Li CY, Yu Y, Zhong S, Wang L, Lidbury I, Ding H, Wang M, McMinn A, Zhang XY, Chen Y, Zhang YZ. A predator-prey interaction between a marine Pseudoalteromonas sp. and Gram-positive bacteria. Nat Commun 2020; 11:285. [PMID: 31941905 PMCID: PMC6962226 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-14133-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions play important roles in the cycling of marine organic matter. Here we show that a Gram-negative bacterium isolated from marine sediments (Pseudoalteromonas sp. strain CF6-2) can kill Gram-positive bacteria of diverse peptidoglycan (PG) chemotypes by secreting the metalloprotease pseudoalterin. Secretion of the enzyme requires a Type II secretion system. Pseudoalterin binds to the glycan strands of Gram positive bacterial PG and degrades the PG peptide chains, leading to cell death. The released nutrients, including PG-derived D-amino acids, can then be utilized by strain CF6-2 for growth. Pseudoalterin synthesis is induced by PG degradation products such as glycine and glycine-rich oligopeptides. Genes encoding putative pseudoalterin-like proteins are found in many other marine bacteria. This study reveals a new microbial interaction in the ocean. Predator-prey interactions play important roles in the cycling of marine organic matter. Here the authors show that a Gram-negative bacterium isolated from marine sediments can kill and feed on Gram-positive bacteria by secreting a peptidoglycan-degrading enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bai-Lu Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Jie Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Xiu-Lan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Peng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China.,College of Marine Life Sciences, Institute for Advanced Ocean Study, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Hui-Lin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Hai-Nan Su
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Chun-Yang Li
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Institute for Advanced Ocean Study, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China.,Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266373, China
| | - Yang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Shuai Zhong
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Lei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Ian Lidbury
- School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Haitao Ding
- SOA Key Laboratory for Polar Science, Polar Research Institute of China, Shanghai, 200136, China
| | - Min Wang
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Institute for Advanced Ocean Study, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Andrew McMinn
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Institute for Advanced Ocean Study, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China.,Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Xi-Ying Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China
| | - Yin Chen
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Institute for Advanced Ocean Study, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China.,School of Life Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, UK
| | - Yu-Zhong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Marine Biotechnology Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, 266237, China. .,College of Marine Life Sciences, Institute for Advanced Ocean Study, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266003, China. .,Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Pilot National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology (Qingdao), Qingdao, 266373, China.
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Beaussart A, El-Kirat-Chatel S. Microbial adhesion and ultrastructure from the single-molecule to the single-cell levels by Atomic Force Microscopy. Cell Surf 2019; 5:100031. [PMID: 32743147 PMCID: PMC7389263 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcsw.2019.100031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decades, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has evolved towards an accurate and lasting tool to study the surface of living cells in physiological conditions. Through imaging, single-molecule force spectroscopy and single-cell force spectroscopy modes, AFM allows to decipher at multiple scales the morphology and the molecular interactions taking place at the cell surface. Applied to microbiology, these approaches have been used to elucidate biophysical properties of biomolecules and to directly link the molecular structures to their function. In this review, we describe the main methods developed for AFM-based microbial surface analysis that we illustrate with examples of molecular mechanisms unravelled with unprecedented resolution.
Collapse
|
17
|
Tejchman W, Orwat B, Korona-Głowniak I, Barbasz A, Kownacki I, Latacz G, Handzlik J, Żesławska E, Malm A. Highly efficient microwave synthesis of rhodanine and 2-thiohydantoin derivatives and determination of relationships between their chemical structures and antibacterial activity. RSC Adv 2019; 9:39367-39380. [PMID: 35540630 PMCID: PMC9076067 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra08690k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Here we report studies on the synthesis of 12 new heterocyclic derivatives that differ in three structural motifs and the simultaneous evaluation of the impact of these three variables on the biological properties. The examined compounds are based on rhodanine and 2-thiohydantoin cores equipped with hydrogen or carboxymethyl substituents at the N-3 position and linked to a triphenylamine moiety through 1,4-phenylene, 1,4-naphthalenylene and 1,9-anthracenylene spacers at the C-5 position of the heterocycles. All the compounds were synthesized very quickly, selectively and in high yields according to the developed microwave-assisted Knoevenagel condensation protocol, and they were characterized thoroughly with NMR, FT-IR and ESI-HRMS techniques. The derivatives were tested for their activity against selected strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria and yeast. Two compounds showed good activity against Gram-positive bacteria, and all of them showed low cytotoxicity against three cell lines of the human immune system. Based on membrane permeability assays it was demonstrated that the active compounds do not penetrate the cell membrane, and thus they must act on the bacterial cell surface. Finally, we proved that the evaluated structure modifications had a synergistic effect and the simultaneous presence of a 1,4-phenylene spacer and carboxymethyl group at N-3 caused the highest boost in antimicrobial activity. An efficient microwave-assisted synthesis of rhodanine and 2-thiohydantoin derivatives, and the correlation between their chemical structure and biological properties is reported.![]()
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Waldemar Tejchman
- Department of Chemistry
- Institute of Biology
- Pedagogical University of Cracow
- 30-084 Kraków
- Poland
| | - Bartosz Orwat
- Faculty of Chemistry
- Adam Mickiewicz University
- 61-614 Poznań
- Poland
- Centre for Advanced Technology
| | | | - Anna Barbasz
- Department of Chemistry
- Institute of Biology
- Pedagogical University of Cracow
- 30-084 Kraków
- Poland
| | - Ireneusz Kownacki
- Faculty of Chemistry
- Adam Mickiewicz University
- 61-614 Poznań
- Poland
- Centre for Advanced Technology
| | - Gniewomir Latacz
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs
- Jagiellonian University Medical College
- 30-688 Kraków
- Poland
| | - Jadwiga Handzlik
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs
- Jagiellonian University Medical College
- 30-688 Kraków
- Poland
| | - Ewa Żesławska
- Department of Chemistry
- Institute of Biology
- Pedagogical University of Cracow
- 30-084 Kraków
- Poland
| | - Anna Malm
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology
- Medical University of Lublin
- 20-093 Lublin
- Poland
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Bougault C, Ayala I, Vollmer W, Simorre JP, Schanda P. Studying intact bacterial peptidoglycan by proton-detected NMR spectroscopy at 100 kHz MAS frequency. J Struct Biol 2018; 206:66-72. [PMID: 30031884 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2018.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 06/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The bacterial cell wall is composed of the peptidoglycan (PG), a large polymer that maintains the integrity of the bacterial cell. Due to its multi-gigadalton size, heterogeneity, and dynamics, atomic-resolution studies are inherently complex. Solid-state NMR is an important technique to gain insight into its structure, dynamics and interactions. Here, we explore the possibilities to study the PG with ultra-fast (100 kHz) magic-angle spinning NMR. We demonstrate that highly resolved spectra can be obtained, and show strategies to obtain site-specific resonance assignments and distance information. We also explore the use of proton-proton correlation experiments, thus opening the way for NMR studies of intact cell walls without the need for isotope labeling.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Bougault
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Structural Biology (IBS), 71 avenue des martyrs, 38044 Grenoble, France
| | - Isabel Ayala
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Structural Biology (IBS), 71 avenue des martyrs, 38044 Grenoble, France
| | - Waldemar Vollmer
- The Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4AX, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-Pierre Simorre
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Structural Biology (IBS), 71 avenue des martyrs, 38044 Grenoble, France.
| | - Paul Schanda
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, Institute for Structural Biology (IBS), 71 avenue des martyrs, 38044 Grenoble, France.
| |
Collapse
|