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Yamada K. 9-Fluorenylmethyl Chloroformate Labeling for O-Glycan Analysis. Methods Mol Biol 2024; 2763:159-169. [PMID: 38347409 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3670-1_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Structural analysis of O-glycans from mucins and characterization of the interaction of these glycans with other biomolecules are essential for a full understanding of mucins. Various techniques have been developed for the structural and functional analysis of glycans. While 9-fluorenylmethyl chloroformate (Fmoc-Cl) is generally used to protect amino groups in peptide synthesis, it can also be used as a glycan-labeling reagent for structural analysis. Fmoc-labeled glycans are strongly fluorescent and can be analyzed with high sensitivity using liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection (LC-FD) analysis as well as being analyzed with high sensitivity by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). Fmoc-labeled glycans can be easily delabeled and converted to glycosylamine-form or free (hemiacetal or aldehyde)-form glycans that can be used to fabricate glycan arrays or synthesize glycosyl dendrimers. This derivatization allows for the isolation from biological samples of glycans that are difficult to synthesize chemically, as well as the fabrication of immobilized-glycan devices. The Fmoc labeling method promises to be a tool for accelerating O-glycan structural analysis and an understanding of molecular interactions. In this chapter, we introduce the Fmoc labeling method for analysis of O-glycans and fabrication of O-glycan arrays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keita Yamada
- The Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Osaka Ohtani University, Osaka, Japan.
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Williams RAJ, Sánchez-Llatas CJ, Doménech A, Madrid R, Fandiño S, Cea-Callejo P, Gomez-Lucia E, Benítez L. Emerging and Novel Viruses in Passerine Birds. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2355. [PMID: 37764199 PMCID: PMC10536639 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11092355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
There is growing interest in emerging viruses that can cause serious or lethal disease in humans and animals. The proliferation of cloacal virome studies, mainly focused on poultry and other domestic birds, reveals a wide variety of viruses, although their pathogenic significance is currently uncertain. Analysis of viruses detected in wild birds is complex and often biased towards waterfowl because of the obvious interest in avian influenza or other zoonotic viruses. Less is known about the viruses present in the order Passeriformes, which comprises approximately 60% of extant bird species. This review aims to compile the most significant contributions on the DNA/RNA viruses affecting passerines, from traditional and metagenomic studies. It highlights that most passerine species have never been sampled. Especially the RNA viruses from Flaviviridae, Orthomyxoviridae and Togaviridae are considered emerging because of increased incidence or avian mortality/morbidity, spread to new geographical areas or hosts and their zoonotic risk. Arguably poxvirus, and perhaps other virus groups, could also be considered "emerging viruses". However, many of these viruses have only recently been described in passerines using metagenomics and their role in the ecosystem is unknown. Finally, it is noteworthy that only one third of the viruses affecting passerines have been officially recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A. J. Williams
- Department of Genetics, Physiology, and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), C. de José Antonio Nováis, 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (C.J.S.-L.); (R.M.); (P.C.-C.); (L.B.)
- “Animal Viruses” Research Group, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.D.); (S.F.); (E.G.-L.)
| | - Christian J. Sánchez-Llatas
- Department of Genetics, Physiology, and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), C. de José Antonio Nováis, 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (C.J.S.-L.); (R.M.); (P.C.-C.); (L.B.)
| | - Ana Doménech
- “Animal Viruses” Research Group, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.D.); (S.F.); (E.G.-L.)
- Deparment of Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ricardo Madrid
- Department of Genetics, Physiology, and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), C. de José Antonio Nováis, 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (C.J.S.-L.); (R.M.); (P.C.-C.); (L.B.)
- “Animal Viruses” Research Group, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.D.); (S.F.); (E.G.-L.)
| | - Sergio Fandiño
- “Animal Viruses” Research Group, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.D.); (S.F.); (E.G.-L.)
- Deparment of Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pablo Cea-Callejo
- Department of Genetics, Physiology, and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), C. de José Antonio Nováis, 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (C.J.S.-L.); (R.M.); (P.C.-C.); (L.B.)
- “Animal Viruses” Research Group, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.D.); (S.F.); (E.G.-L.)
| | - Esperanza Gomez-Lucia
- “Animal Viruses” Research Group, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.D.); (S.F.); (E.G.-L.)
- Deparment of Animal Health, Veterinary Faculty, Complutense University of Madrid, Av. Puerta de Hierro, s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Laura Benítez
- Department of Genetics, Physiology, and Microbiology, School of Biology, Complutense University of Madrid (UCM), C. de José Antonio Nováis, 12, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (C.J.S.-L.); (R.M.); (P.C.-C.); (L.B.)
- “Animal Viruses” Research Group, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (A.D.); (S.F.); (E.G.-L.)
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Asensio-Cob D, Rodríguez JM, Luque D. Rotavirus Particle Disassembly and Assembly In Vivo and In Vitro. Viruses 2023; 15:1750. [PMID: 37632092 PMCID: PMC10458742 DOI: 10.3390/v15081750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Rotaviruses (RVs) are non-enveloped multilayered dsRNA viruses that are major etiologic agents of diarrheal disease in humans and in the young in a large number of animal species. The viral particle is composed of three different protein layers that enclose the segmented dsRNA genome and the transcriptional complexes. Each layer defines a unique subparticle that is associated with a different phase of the replication cycle. Thus, while single- and double-layered particles are associated with the intracellular processes of selective packaging, genome replication, and transcription, the viral machinery necessary for entry is located in the third layer. This modular nature of its particle allows rotaviruses to control its replication cycle by the disassembly and assembly of its structural proteins. In this review, we examine the significant advances in structural, molecular, and cellular RV biology that have contributed during the last few years to illuminating the intricate details of the RV particle disassembly and assembly processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dunia Asensio-Cob
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Peter Gilgan Centre for Research and Learning, The Hospital for Sick Children, 686 Bay Street, Toronto, ON M5G0A4, Canada;
| | - Javier M. Rodríguez
- Department of Structure of Macromolecules, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología/CSIC, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Daniel Luque
- Electron Microscopy Unit UCCT/ISCIII, 28220 Majadahonda, Spain
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
- Electron Microscope Unit, Mark Wainwright Analytical Centre, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
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Tatsi EB, Koukou DM, Dellis C, Dourdouna MM, Efthymiou V, Michos A, Syriopoulou V. Epidemiological study of unusual rotavirus strains and molecular characterization of emerging P[14] strains isolated from children with acute gastroenteritis during a 15-year period. Arch Virol 2023; 168:149. [PMID: 37129790 PMCID: PMC10151219 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-023-05769-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Rotavirus group A (RVA) is characterized by molecular and epidemiological diversity. To date, 42 G and 58 P RVA genotypes have been identified, some of which, like P[14], have a zoonotic origin. In this study, we describe the epidemiology of unusual RVA genotypes and the molecular characteristics of P[14] strains. Fecal samples from children ≤ 16 years of age with acute gastroenteritis (AGE) who were hospitalized during 2007-2021 in Greece were tested for RVA by immunochromatography. Positive RVA samples were G and P genotyped, and part of the VP7 and VP4 genes were sequenced by the Sanger method. Epidemiological data were also recorded. Phylogenetic analysis of P[14] was performed using MEGA 11 software. Sixty-two (1.4%) out of 4427 children with RVA AGE were infected with an unusual G (G6/G8/G10) or P (P[6]/P[9]/P[10]/P[11]/P[14]) genotype. Their median (IQR) age was 18.7 (37.3) months, and 67.7% (42/62) were males. None of the children were vaccinated against RVA. P[9] (28/62; 45.2%) was the most common unusual genotype, followed by P[14] (12/62; 19.4%). In the last two years, during the period of the COVID-19 pandemic, an emergence of P[14] was observed (5/12, 41.6%) after an 8-year absence. The highest prevalence of P[14] infection was seen in the spring (91.7%). The combinations G8P[14] (41.7%), G6P[14] (41.7%), and G4P[14] (16.6%) were also detected. Phylogenetic analysis showed a potential evolutionary relationship of three human RVA P[14] strains to a fox strain from Croatia. These findings suggest a possible zoonotic origin of P[14] and interspecies transmission between nondomestic animals and humans, which may lead to new RVA genotypes with unknown severity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth-Barbara Tatsi
- First Department of Pediatrics, Infectious Diseases and Chemotherapy Research Laboratory, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, 11527, Greece.
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health and Precision Medicine, Athens, Greece.
| | - Dimitra-Maria Koukou
- First Department of Pediatrics, Infectious Diseases and Chemotherapy Research Laboratory, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, 11527, Greece
| | - Charilaos Dellis
- First Department of Pediatrics, Infectious Diseases and Chemotherapy Research Laboratory, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, 11527, Greece
| | - Maria-Myrto Dourdouna
- First Department of Pediatrics, Infectious Diseases and Chemotherapy Research Laboratory, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, 11527, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Efthymiou
- University Research Institute of Maternal and Child Health and Precision Medicine, Athens, Greece
| | - Athanasios Michos
- First Department of Pediatrics, Infectious Diseases and Chemotherapy Research Laboratory, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, 11527, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Syriopoulou
- First Department of Pediatrics, Infectious Diseases and Chemotherapy Research Laboratory, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, "Aghia Sophia" Children's Hospital, Athens, 11527, Greece
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Jiang L, Tang A, Song L, Tong Y, Fan H. Advances in the development of antivirals for rotavirus infection. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1041149. [PMID: 37006293 PMCID: PMC10063883 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1041149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Rotavirus (RV) causes 200,000 deaths per year and imposes a serious burden to public health and livestock farming worldwide. Currently, rehydration (oral and intravenous) remains the main strategy for the treatment of rotavirus gastroenteritis (RVGE), and no specific drugs are available. This review discusses the viral replication cycle in detail and outlines possible therapeutic approaches including immunotherapy, probiotic-assisted therapy, anti-enteric secretory drugs, Chinese medicine, and natural compounds. We present the latest advances in the field of rotavirus antivirals and highlights the potential use of Chinese medicine and natural compounds as therapeutic agents. This review provides an important reference for rotavirus prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lihua Song
- *Correspondence: Huahao Fan, ; Yigang Tong, ; Lihua Song,
| | - Yigang Tong
- *Correspondence: Huahao Fan, ; Yigang Tong, ; Lihua Song,
| | - Huahao Fan
- *Correspondence: Huahao Fan, ; Yigang Tong, ; Lihua Song,
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Fantini J, Chahinian H, Yahi N. A Vaccine Strategy Based on the Identification of an Annular Ganglioside Binding Motif in Monkeypox Virus Protein E8L. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112531. [PMID: 36423140 PMCID: PMC9693861 DOI: 10.3390/v14112531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent outbreak of Monkeypox virus requires the development of a vaccine specifically directed against this virus as quickly as possible. We propose here a new strategy based on a two-step analysis combining (i) the search for binding domains of viral proteins to gangliosides present in lipid rafts of host cells, and (ii) B epitope predictions. Based on previous studies of HIV and SARS-CoV-2 proteins, we show that the Monkeypox virus cell surface-binding protein E8L possesses a ganglioside-binding motif consisting of several subsites forming a ring structure. The binding of the E8L protein to a cluster of gangliosides GM1 mimicking a lipid raft domain is driven by both shape and electrostatic surface potential complementarities. An induced-fit mechanism unmasks selected amino acid side chains of the motif without significantly affecting the secondary structure of the protein. The ganglioside-binding motif overlaps three potential linear B epitopes that are well exposed on the unbound E8L surface that faces the host cell membrane. This situation is ideal for generating neutralizing antibodies. We thus suggest using these three sequences derived from the E8L protein as immunogens in a vaccine formulation (recombinant protein, synthetic peptides or genetically based) specific for Monkeypox virus. This lipid raft/ganglioside-based strategy could be used for developing therapeutic and vaccine responses to future virus outbreaks, in parallel to existing solutions.
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Diebold O, Gonzalez V, Venditti L, Sharp C, Blake RA, Tan WS, Stevens J, Caddy S, Digard P, Borodavka A, Gaunt E. Using Species a Rotavirus Reverse Genetics to Engineer Chimeric Viruses Expressing SARS-CoV-2 Spike Epitopes. J Virol 2022; 96:e0048822. [PMID: 35758692 PMCID: PMC9327695 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00488-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Species A rotavirus (RVA) vaccines based on live attenuated viruses are used worldwide in humans. The recent establishment of a reverse genetics system for rotoviruses (RVs) has opened the possibility of engineering chimeric viruses expressing heterologous peptides from other viral or microbial species in order to develop polyvalent vaccines. We tested the feasibility of this concept by two approaches. First, we inserted short SARS-CoV-2 spike peptides into the hypervariable region of the simian RV SA11 strain viral protein (VP) 4. Second, we fused the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, or the shorter receptor binding motif (RBM) nested within the RBD, to the C terminus of nonstructural protein (NSP) 3 of the bovine RV RF strain, with or without an intervening Thosea asigna virus 2A (T2A) peptide. Mutating the hypervariable region of SA11 VP4 impeded viral replication, and for these mutants, no cross-reactivity with spike antibodies was detected. To rescue NSP3 mutants, we established a plasmid-based reverse genetics system for the bovine RV RF strain. Except for the RBD mutant that demonstrated a rescue defect, all NSP3 mutants delivered endpoint infectivity titers and exhibited replication kinetics comparable to that of the wild-type virus. In ELISAs, cell lysates of an NSP3 mutant expressing the RBD peptide showed cross-reactivity with a SARS-CoV-2 RBD antibody. 3D bovine gut enteroids were susceptible to infection by all NSP3 mutants, but cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV-2 RBD antibody was only detected for the RBM mutant. The tolerance of large SARS-CoV-2 peptide insertions at the C terminus of NSP3 in the presence of T2A element highlights the potential of this approach for the development of vaccine vectors targeting multiple enteric pathogens simultaneously. IMPORTANCE We explored the use of rotaviruses (RVs) to express heterologous peptides, using SARS-CoV-2 as an example. Small SARS-CoV-2 peptide insertions (<34 amino acids) into the hypervariable region of the viral protein 4 (VP4) of RV SA11 strain resulted in reduced viral titer and replication, demonstrating a limited tolerance for peptide insertions at this site. To test the RV RF strain for its tolerance for peptide insertions, we constructed a reverse genetics system. NSP3 was C-terminally tagged with SARS-CoV-2 spike peptides of up to 193 amino acids in length. With a T2A-separated 193 amino acid tag on NSP3, there was no significant effect on the viral rescue efficiency, endpoint titer, and replication kinetics. Tagged NSP3 elicited cross-reactivity with SARS-CoV-2 spike antibodies in ELISA. We highlight the potential for development of RV vaccine vectors targeting multiple enteric pathogens simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ola Diebold
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Victoria Gonzalez
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Luca Venditti
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Sharp
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Rosemary A. Blake
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Wenfang S. Tan
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Joanne Stevens
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Sarah Caddy
- Cambridge Institute of Therapeutic Immunology and Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Paul Digard
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Borodavka
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Eleanor Gaunt
- Infection and Immunity Division, Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Midlothian, United Kingdom
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Dang L, Su Y, Qi J, Wu Z, Li D, Wang M, Zhang Q, Wang H, Bai R, Duan Z, Sun X. Structural and functional characterization of bovine G1P[5] rotavirus VP8* protein. Virology 2021; 563:116-125. [PMID: 34509703 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2021.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The widely used rotavirus (RV) vaccine, Rotateq, contained reassortment strains of human and bovine G1/2/3/4P[5] RVs. The functional and structural features of bovine G1P[5] VP8* were investigated. Bovine G1P[5] VP8* was identified to interact with sialic acids and sialic acid-containing glycans. In addition, P[5] VP8* recognized α-Gal histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs). Bovine G1P[5] VP8* did not hemagglutinate the tested red blood cells. The crystal structure of P[5] VP8* was determined at 1.7 Å. Structural superimposition revealed that P[5] VP8* was most close to human P[8] VP8*, while much further to VP8*s of porcine P[7] and rhesus P[3]. Sequence alignment showed that amino acids of the putative glycan binding site in P[5] VP8* were different to those in P[3]/P[7] VP8*s, indicating that P[5] VP8* may interact with glycans using different mechanism. This study provided more understanding of P[5] RV infection and the interactions of RV VP8* and glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Dang
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China; Inner Mongolia Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hohhot, 010059, China
| | - Yunxi Su
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Jianxun Qi
- Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Zheng Wu
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Dandi Li
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Mengxuan Wang
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Qing Zhang
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Hong Wang
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China
| | - Ruixia Bai
- Inner Mongolia Medical University, Hohhot, 010059, China
| | - Zhaojun Duan
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China.
| | - Xiaoman Sun
- National Health Commission Key Laboratory for Medical Virology and Viral Diseases, Beijing, 102206, China; National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, China CDC, Beijing, 102206, China.
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