Resting State Functional Connectivity of the Rat Claustrum

The human brainstem's red nucleus was upgraded to support goal-directed action

The red nucleus, a large brainstem structure, coordinates limb movement for locomotion in quadrupedal animals. In humans, its pattern of anatomical connectivity differs from that of quadrupeds, suggesting a different purpose. Here, we apply our most advanced resting-state functional connectivity based precision functional mapping in highly sampled individuals (n = 5), resting-state functional connectivity in large group-averaged datasets (combined n ~ 45,000), and task based analysis of reward, motor, and action related contrasts from group-averaged datasets (n > 1000) and meta-analyses (n > 14,000 studies) to precisely examine red nucleus function. Notably, red nucleus functional connectivity with motor-effector networks (somatomotor hand, foot, and mouth) is minimal. Instead, connectivity is strongest to the action-mode and salience networks, which are important for action/cognitive control and reward/motivated behavior. Consistent with this, the red nucleus responds to motor planning more than to actual movement, while also responding to rewards. Our results suggest the human red nucleus implements goal-directed behavior by integrating behavioral valence and action plans instead of serving a pure motor-effector function.

The Role of Claustrum in Incubation of Opioid Seeking after Electric Barrier-Induced Voluntary Abstinence in Male and Female Rats

We previously reported that ventral subiculum (vSub) activity is critical to incubation of oxycodone seeking after abstinence induced by adverse consequences of drug seeking. Here, we studied the role of claustrum, a key vSub input, in this incubation. We trained male and female rats to self-administer oxycodone for 2 weeks and then induced abstinence by exposing them to an electric barrier for 2 weeks. We used retrograde tracing (cholera toxin B subunit) plus the activity marker Fos to identify projections to vSub cactivated during "incubated" relapse (Abstinence Day 15). We then used pharmacological reversible inactivation to determine the causal role of claustrum in incubation and the behavioral and anatomical specificity of this role. We also used an anatomical disconnection procedure to determine the causal role of claustrum-vSub connections in incubation. Finally, we analyzed an existing functional MRI dataset to determine if functional connectivity changes in claustrum-related circuits predict incubation of oxycodone seeking. Claustrum neurons projecting to vSub were activated during relapse tests after electric barrier-induced abstinence. Inactivation of claustrum but not areas dorsolateral to claustrum decreased incubation of oxycodone seeking after electric barrier-induced abstinence; claustrum inactivation had no effect on incubation after food choice-induced abstinence. Both ipsilateral and contralateral inactivation of claustrum-vSub projections decreased incubation after electric barrier-induced abstinence. Functional connectivity changes in claustrum-cortical circuits during electric barrier-induced abstinence predicted incubated oxycodone relapse. Our study identified a novel role of claustrum in relapse to opioid drugs after abstinence induced by adverse consequences of drug seeking.

The functional connectivity of the human claustrum, according to the Human Connectome Project database

The claustrum is an irregular and fine sheet of grey matter in the basolateral telencephalon present in almost all mammals. The claustrum has been the object of several studies using animal models and, more recently, in human beings using neuroimaging. One of the most extended cognitive processes attributed to the claustrum is the salience process, which is also related to the insular cortex. In the same way, studies with human subjects and functional magnetic resonance imaging have reported the coactivation of the claustrum/insular cortex in the integration of sensory signals. This coactivation has been reported in the left claustrum/insular cortex or in the right claustrum/insular cortex. The asymmetry has been reported in task studies and literature related to neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia, relating the severity of delusions with the reduction in left claustral volume. We present a functional connectivity study of the claustrum. Resting-state functional and anatomical MRI data from 100 healthy subjects were analyzed; taken from the Human Connectome Project (HCP, NIH Blueprint: The Human Connectome Project), with 2x2x2 mm3 voxel resolution. We hypothesize that 1) the claustrum is a node involved in different brain networks, 2) the functional connectivity pattern of the claustrum is different from the insular cortex's pattern, and 3) the asymmetry is present in the claustrum's functional connectivity. Our findings include at least three brain networks related to the claustrum. We found functional connectivity between the claustrum, frontoparietal network, and the default mode network as a distinctive attribute. The functional connectivity between the right claustrum with the frontoparietal network and the dorsal attention network supports the hypothesis of claustral asymmetry. These findings provide functional evidence, suggesting that the claustrum is coupled with the frontoparietal network serving together to instantiate new task states by flexibly modulating and interacting with other control and processing networks.

Human lesions and animal studies link the claustrum to perception, salience, sleep and pain

The claustrum is the most densely interconnected region in the human brain. Despite the accumulating data from clinical and experimental studies, the functional role of the claustrum remains unknown. Here, we systematically review claustrum lesion studies and discuss their functional implications. Claustral lesions are associated with an array of signs and symptoms, including changes in cognitive, perceptual and motor abilities; electrical activity; mental state; and sleep. The wide range of symptoms observed following claustral lesions do not provide compelling evidence to support prominent current theories of claustrum function such as multisensory integration or salience computation. Conversely, the lesions studies support the hypothesis that the claustrum regulates cortical excitability. We argue that the claustrum is connected to, or part of, multiple brain networks that perform both fundamental and higher cognitive functions. As a multifunctional node in numerous networks, this may explain the manifold effects of claustrum damage on brain and behaviour.

The claustrum of the sheep and its connections to the visual cortex

The present study analyses the organization and selected neurochemical features of the claustrum and visual cortex of the sheep, based on the patterns of calcium-binding proteins expression. Connections of the claustrum with the visual cortex have been studied by tractography. Parvalbumin-immunoreactive (PV-ir) and Calbindin-immunoreactive (CB-ir) cell bodies increased along the rostro-caudal axis of the nucleus. Calretinin (CR)-labeled somata were few and evenly distributed along the rostro-caudal axis. PV and CB distribution in the visual cortex was characterized by larger round and multipolar cells for PV, and more bitufted neurons for CB. The staining pattern for PV was the opposite of that of CR, which showed densely stained but rare cell bodies. Tractography shows the existence of connections with the caudal visual cortex. However, we detected no contralateral projection in the visuo-claustral interconnections. Since sheep and goats have laterally placed eyes and a limited binocular vision, the absence of contralateral projections could be of prime importance if confirmed by other studies, to rule out the role of the claustrum in stereopsis.

Psilocybin acutely alters the functional connectivity of the claustrum with brain networks that support perception, memory, and attention

Psychedelic drugs, including the serotonin 2a (5-HT2A) receptor partial agonist psilocybin, are receiving renewed attention for their possible efficacy in treating a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders. Psilocybin induces widespread dysregulation of cortical activity, but circuit-level mechanisms underlying this effect are unclear. The claustrum is a subcortical nucleus that highly expresses 5-HT2A receptors and provides glutamatergic inputs to arguably all areas of the cerebral cortex. We therefore tested the hypothesis that psilocybin modulates claustrum function in humans. Fifteen healthy participants (10M, 5F) completed this within-subjects study in which whole-brain resting-state blood-oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) signal was measured 100 ​min after blinded oral administration of placebo and 10 mg/70 ​kg psilocybin. Left and right claustrum signal was isolated using small region confound correction. Psilocybin significantly decreased both the amplitude of low frequency fluctuations as well as the variance of BOLD signal in the left and right claustrum. Psilocybin also significantly decreased functional connectivity of the right claustrum with auditory and default mode networks (DMN), increased right claustrum connectivity with the fronto-parietal task control network (FPTC), and decreased left claustrum connectivity with the FPTC. DMN integrity was associated with right-claustrum connectivity with the DMN, while FPTC integrity and modularity were associated with right claustrum and left claustrum connectivity with the FPTC, respectively. Subjective effects of psilocybin predicted changes in the amplitude of low frequency fluctuations and the variance of BOLD signal in the left and right claustrum. Observed effects were specific to claustrum, compared to flanking regions of interest (the left and right insula and putamen). This study used a pharmacological intervention to provide the first empirical evidence in any species for a significant role of 5-HT2A receptor signaling in claustrum functioning, and supports a possible role of the claustrum in the subjective and therapeutic effects of psilocybin.

A Special Cranial Nucleus (CSF-Contacting Nucleus) in Primates

BACKGROUND

There is a unique nucleus (CSF-contacting nucleus) in the brain of rat. It has been demonstrated in our previous research. The extraordinary feature of this nucleus is that it is not connected to any parenchymal organ but to the CSF. In primates, however, the presence or absence of this nucleus has not been proven. Confirmation of the presence of this nucleus in primates will provide the structural basis for brain-CSF communication and help to understand the neurohumoral regulatory mechanisms in humans.

METHODS

The tracer cholera toxin B subunit conjugated to horseradish peroxidase (CB-HRP) was injected into the CSF in the lateral ventricle (LV) of primate rhesus monkeys. After 48 h, the monkeys were perfused and the brain was dissected out, and sectioned for CB-HRP staining. The CB-HRP positive structures were observed under confocal and electron microscopy. The three-dimensional (3D) structure of the CB-HRP positive neurons cluster was reconstructed by computer software.

RESULTS

(1) CB-HRP labeling is confined within the ventricle, but not leakage into the brain parenchyma. (2) From the midbrain inferior colliculus superior border plane ventral to the aqueduct to the upper part of the fourth ventricle (4V) floor, a large number of CB-HRP positive neurons are consistently located, form a cluster, and are symmetrically located on both sides of the midline. (3) 3D reconstruction shows that the CB-HRP positive neurons cluster in the monkey brain occupies certain space. The rostral part is large and caudal part is thin appearing a "rivet"-like shape. (4) Under electron microscopy, the CB-HRP positive neurons show different types of synaptic connections with the non-CSF-contacting structures in the brain. Some of the processes stretch directly into the ventricle cavity.

CONCLUSION

Same as we did in rats, the CSF-contacting nucleus is also existed in the primate brain parenchyma. We also recommend listing it as the XIII pair of cranial nucleus, which is specialized in the communications between the brain and the CSF. It is significant to the completing of innervation in the organism.

The Anatomy and Physiology of Claustrum-Cortex Interactions

The claustrum is one of the most widely connected regions of the forebrain, yet its function has remained obscure, largely due to the experimentally challenging nature of targeting this small, thin, and elongated brain area. However, recent advances in molecular techniques have enabled the anatomy and physiology of the claustrum to be studied with the spatiotemporal and cell type–specific precision required to eventually converge on what this area does. Here we review early anatomical and electrophysiological results from cats and primates, as well as recent work in the rodent, identifying the connectivity, cell types, and physiological circuit mechanisms underlying the communication between the claustrum and the cortex. The emerging picture is one in which the rodent claustrum is closely tied to frontal/limbic regions and plays a role in processes, such as attention, that are associated with these areas.

A Role for the Claustrum in Salience Processing?

The claustrum (CLA) is a subcortical structure, present only in mammals, whose function remains uncertain. Previously, using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) in awake head-fixed rats, we found evidence that the CLA is part of the rodent homolog of the default mode network (DMN; Smith et al., 2017). This network emerged as strong functional connections between the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), mediodorsal (MD) thalamus, and CLA in the awake state, which was not present following administration of isoflurane anesthesia. In the present report, we review evidence indicating that the rodent CLA also has connections with structures identified in the rodent homolog of the salience network (SN), a circuit that directs attention towards the most relevant stimuli among a multitude of sensory inputs (Seeley et al., 2007; Menon and Uddin, 2010). In humans, this circuit consists of functional connections between the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and a region that encompasses both the CLA and insular cortex. We further go on to review the similarities and differences between the functional and anatomical connections of the CLA and insula in rodents using both rs-fMRI and neuroanatomical tracing, respectively. We analyze in detail the connectivity of the CLA with the cingulate cortex, which is a major node in the SN and has been shown to modulate attention. When considered with other recent behavior and physiology studies, the data reveal a role for the CLA in salience-guided orienting. More specifically, we hypothesize that limbic information from mPFC, MD thalamus, and the basolateral amygdala (BLA) are integrated by the CLA to guide modality-related regions of motor and sensory cortex in directing attention towards relevant (i.e., salient) sensory events.

Resting state functional connectivity and cognitive task-related activation of the human claustrum

Structural and functional analyses of the human claustrum, a poorly understood telencephalic gray matter structure, are hampered by its sheet-like anatomical arrangement. Here, we first describe a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) method to reveal claustrum signal with no linear relationship with adjacent regions in human subjects. We applied this approach to resting state functional connectivity (RSFC) analysis of the claustrum at high resolution (1.5 mm isotropic voxels) using a 7T dataset (n = 20) and a separate 3T dataset for replication (n = 35). We then assessed claustrum activation during performance of a cognitive task, the multi-source interference task, at 3T (n = 33). Extensive functional connectivity was observed between claustrum and cortical regions associated with cognitive control, including anterior cingulate, prefrontal and parietal cortices. Cognitive task performance was associated with widespread activation and deactivation that overlapped with the cortical areas showing functional connectivity to the claustrum. Furthermore, during high cognitive conflict conditions of the task, the claustrum was significantly activated at the onset of the task, but not during the remainder of the difficult condition. Both of these findings suggest that the human claustrum can be functionally isolated with fMRI, and that it may play a role in cognitive control, and specifically task switching, independent of sensorimotor processing.