Structure and Synaptic Function of Metal Binding to the Amyloid Precursor Protein and its Proteolytic Fragments

Navigating the Maze of Alzheimer's disease by exploring BACE1: Discovery, current scenario, and future prospects

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a chronic neurological condition that has become a leading cause of cognitive decline in elder individuals. Hardly any effective medication has been developed to halt the progression of AD due to the disease's complexity. Several theories have been put forward to clarify the mechanisms underlying AD etiology. The identification of amyloid plaques as a hallmark of AD has sparked the development of numerous drugs targeting the players involved in the amyloidogenic pathway, such as the β-site of amyloid precursor protein cleavage enzyme 1 (BACE1) blockers. Over the last ten years, preclinical and early experimental research has led several pharmaceutical companies to prioritize producing BACE1 inhibitors. Despite all these efforts, earlier discovered inhibitors were discontinued in consideration of another second-generation small molecules and recent BACE1 antagonists failed in the final stages of clinical trials because of the complications associated either with toxicity or effectiveness. In addition to discussing the difficulties associated with development of BACE1 inhibitors, this review aims to provide an overview of BACE1 and offer perspectives on the causes behind the failure of five recent BACE1 inhibitors, that would be beneficial for choosing effective treatment approaches in the future.

Amyloid-β Tetramers and Divalent Cations at the Membrane/Water Interface: Simple Models Support a Functional Role

Charge polarization at the membrane interface is a fundamental process in biology. Despite the lower concentration compared to the abundant monovalent ions, the relative abundance of divalent cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Cu2+) in particular spaces, such as the neuron synapse, raised many questions on the possible effects of free multivalent ions and of the required protection of membranes by the eventual defects caused by the free forms of the cations. In this work, we first applied a recent realistic model of divalent cations to a well-investigated model of a polar lipid bilayer, di-myristoyl phosphatidyl choline (DMPC). The full atomistic model allows a fairly good description of changes in the hydration of charged and polar groups upon the association of cations to lipid atoms. The lipid-bound configurations were analyzed in detail. In parallel, amyloid-β 1-42 (Aβ42) peptides assembled into tetramers were modeled at the surface of the same bilayer. Two of the protein tetramers' models were loaded with four Cu2+ ions, the latter bound as in DMPC-free Aβ42 oligomers. The two Cu-bound models differ in the binding topology: one with each Cu ion binding each of the monomers in the tetramer; one with pairs of Cu ions linking two monomers into dimers, forming tetramers as dimers of dimers. The models here described provide hints on the possible role of Cu ions in synaptic plasticity and of Aβ42 oligomers in storing the same ions away from lipids. The release of structurally disordered peptides in the synapse can be a mechanism to recover ion homeostasis and lipid membranes from changes in the divalent cation concentration.

Residue-specific binding of Ni(II) ions influences the structure and aggregation of amyloid beta (Aβ) peptides

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia worldwide. AD brains display deposits of insoluble amyloid plaques consisting mainly of aggregated amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides, and Aβ oligomers are likely a toxic species in AD pathology. AD patients display altered metal homeostasis, and AD plaques show elevated concentrations of metals such as Cu, Fe, and Zn. Yet, the metal chemistry in AD pathology remains unclear. Ni(II) ions are known to interact with Aβ peptides, but the nature and effects of such interactions are unknown. Here, we use numerous biophysical methods-mainly spectroscopy and imaging techniques-to characterize Aβ/Ni(II) interactions in vitro, for different Aβ variants: Aβ(1-40), Aβ(1-40)(H6A, H13A, H14A), Aβ(4-40), and Aβ(1-42). We show for the first time that Ni(II) ions display specific binding to the N-terminal segment of full-length Aβ monomers. Equimolar amounts of Ni(II) ions retard Aβ aggregation and direct it towards non-structured aggregates. The His6, His13, and His14 residues are implicated as binding ligands, and the Ni(II)·Aβ binding affinity is in the low µM range. The redox-active Ni(II) ions induce formation of dityrosine cross-links via redox chemistry, thereby creating covalent Aβ dimers. In aqueous buffer Ni(II) ions promote formation of beta sheet structure in Aβ monomers, while in a membrane-mimicking environment (SDS micelles) coil-coil helix interactions appear to be induced. For SDS-stabilized Aβ oligomers, Ni(II) ions direct the oligomers towards larger sizes and more diverse (heterogeneous) populations. All of these structural rearrangements may be relevant for the Aβ aggregation processes that are involved in AD brain pathology.

From Small Peptides to Large Proteins against Alzheimer’sDisease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder in the elderly. The two cardinal neuropathological hallmarks of AD are the senile plaques, which are extracellular deposits mainly constituted by beta-amyloids, and neurofibrillary tangles formed by abnormally phosphorylated Tau (p-Tau) located in the cytoplasm of neurons. Although the research has made relevant progress in the management of the disease, the treatment is still lacking. Only symptomatic medications exist for the disease, and, in the meantime, laboratories worldwide are investigating disease-modifying treatments for AD. In the present review, results centered on the use of peptides of different sizes involved in AD are presented.

Molecular Characteristics of Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) and Its Effects in Cancer

Amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a type 1 transmembrane glycoprotein, and its homologs amyloid precursor-like protein 1 (APLP1) and amyloid precursor-like protein 2 (APLP2) are highly conserved in mammals. APP and APLP are known to be intimately involved in the pathogenesis and progression of Alzheimer's disease and to play important roles in neuronal homeostasis and development and neural transmission. APP and APLP are also expressed in non-neuronal tissues and are overexpressed in cancer cells. Furthermore, research indicates they are involved in several cancers. In this review, we examine the biological characteristics of APP-related family members and their roles in cancer.

Inhibition of Amyloid β Aggregation Using Optimized Nano-Encapsulated Formulations of Plant Extracts with High Metal Chelator Activities

Background:

The role of Fe+2, Cu+2 and Zn+2 in facilitating aggregation of Amyloid β (Aβ) and consequently, the progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is well established.

Objective:

Development of non-toxic metal chelators is an emerging era in the treatment of AD, in which complete success has not been fully achieved. The purpose of this study was to determine plant extracts with high metal chelator and to encapsulate them in nano-micellar systems with the ability to pass through the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB).

Method:

Extracts of 36 different Anatolian plants were prepared, total phenolic and flavonoid contents were determined, and the extracts with high content were examined for their Fe+2, Cu+2 and Zn+2 chelating activities. Apolipoprotein E4 (Apo E) decorated nano-formulations of active extracts were prepared using Poly (Lactide-co-Glycolide) (PLGA) (final product ApoEPLGA) to provide BBB penetrating property.

Results:

Verbascum flavidum aqueous extract was found as the most active sample, incubation of which, with Aβ before and after metal-induced aggregation, resulted in successful inhibition of aggregate formation, while re-solubilization of pre-formed aggregates was not effectively achieved. The same results were obtained using ApoEPLGA.

Conclusion:

An optimized metal chelator nano-formulation with BBB penetrating ability was prepared and presented for further in-vivo studies.

Cerebrospinal fluid neuroplasticity-associated protein levels in patients with psychiatric disorders: a multiplex immunoassay study

To examine the role of neuroplasticity in the pathology of psychiatric disorders, we measured cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) neuroplasticity-associated protein levels. Participants were 94 patients with schizophrenia, 68 with bipolar disorder (BD), 104 with major depressive disorder (MDD), and 118 healthy controls, matched for age, sex, and ethnicity (Japanese). A multiplex immunoassay (22-plex assay) was performed to measure CSF neuroplasticity-associated protein levels. Among 22 proteins, 11 were successfully measured in the assay. CSF amyloid precursor protein (APP) and glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) levels were significantly lower in patients with schizophrenia, and CSF APP and neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM)-1 levels were significantly lower in patients with BD, than in healthy controls (all p < 0.05). Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale total, positive, and general scores were significantly and positively correlated with CSF hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) (p < 0.01) and S100 calcium-binding protein B (S100B) (p < 0.05) levels in patients with schizophrenia. Young mania-rating scale score was significantly and positively correlated with CSF S100B level in patients with BD (p < 0.05). Hamilton Depression Rating Scale, core, sleep, activity, somatic anxiety, and delusion subscale scores were significantly and positively correlated with CSF HGF level, while sleep subscale score was positively correlated with CSF S100B and VEGF receptor 2 levels in patients with MDD (p < 0.05). Our results suggest that CSF APP, GDNF, and NCAM-1 levels are associated with psychiatric disorders, and that CSF HGF, S100B, and VEGF receptor 2 levels are related to psychiatric symptoms.

Mercury and Alzheimer's Disease: Hg(II) Ions Display Specific Binding to the Amyloid-β Peptide and Hinder Its Fibrillization

Brains and blood of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients have shown elevated mercury concentrations, but potential involvement of mercury exposure in AD pathogenesis has not been studied at the molecular level. The pathological hallmark of AD brains is deposition of amyloid plaques, consisting mainly of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides aggregated into amyloid fibrils. Aβ peptide fibrillization is known to be modulated by metal ions such as Cu(II) and Zn(II). Here, we study in vitro the interactions between Aβ peptides and Hg(II) ions by multiple biophysical techniques. Fluorescence spectroscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM) show that Hg(II) ions have a concentration-dependent inhibiting effect on Aβ fibrillization: at a 1:1 Aβ·Hg(II) ratio only non-fibrillar Aβ aggregates are formed. NMR spectroscopy shows that Hg(II) ions interact with the N-terminal region of Aβ(1-40) with a micromolar affinity, likely via a binding mode similar to that for Cu(II) and Zn(II) ions, i.e., mainly via the histidine residues His6, His13, and His14. Thus, together with Cu(II), Fe(II), Mn(II), Pb(IV), and Zn(II) ions, Hg(II) belongs to a family of metal ions that display residue-specific binding interactions with Aβ peptides and modulate their aggregation processes.

Copper and Neurotoxicity in Autism Spectrum Disorder

Free radicals (FR) act on living organisms and present unpaired electrons in the molecular orbitals of oxygen or nitrogen species. They are classified as redox reactions and account for a wide range of processes in biological systems. Genetic and environmental factors may alter the levels of FR in the cell, leading to deleterious consequences such as membrane lipid peroxidation, protein nitration, enzyme, carbohydrate and DNA damage, ultimately resulting in premature aging and a pro-inflammatory microenvironment as observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). O2 radical ability to act as a Lewis base and to form a complex with metal transition such as iron and copper (Lewis acids) leads to biomolecules oxidation at physiological pH, thus increasing the possibility of injury and oxidative damage in biological tissues. In this review, we discuss the role of metals, like copper, and the amyloid precursor protein (APP) derivative (s-APP-alpha) as an antioxidant and a possible adjuvant in the treatment of some autistic spectrum disorder symptoms (ASD).

Is brain iron trafficking part of the physiology of the amyloid precursor protein?

The amyloid precursor protein is so named, because a proteolytic fragment of it was found associated with a neuropathic disorder now known as Alzheimer's disease. This fragment, Aβ, along with tau makes up the plaques and tangles that are the hallmark of AD. Iron (and other first-row transition metals) is found associated with these proteinaceous deposits. Much research has focused on the relationship of the plaques and iron to the etiology of the disease. This commentary asks another question, one only more recently addressed namely, what is the physiologic function of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and of its secretase-generated soluble species? Overall, the data make clear that APP and its products have neurotrophic functions and some data indicate one of these may be to modulate the trafficking of iron in the brain.

Emerging Alternative Proteinases in APP Metabolism and Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis: A Focus on MT1-MMP and MT5-MMP

Processing of amyloid beta precursor protein (APP) into amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) by β-secretase and γ-secretase complex is at the heart of the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Targeting this proteolytic pathway effectively reduces/prevents pathology and cognitive decline in preclinical experimental models of the disease, but therapeutic strategies based on secretase activity modifying drugs have so far failed in clinical trials. Although this may raise some doubts on the relevance of β- and γ-secretases as targets, new APP-cleaving enzymes, including meprin-β, legumain (δ-secretase), rhomboid-like protein-4 (RHBDL4), caspases and membrane-type matrix metalloproteinases (MT-MMPs/η-secretases) have confirmed that APP processing remains a solid mechanism in AD pathophysiology. This review will discuss recent findings on the roles of all these proteinases in the nervous system, and in particular on the roles of MT-MMPs, which are at the crossroads of pathological events involving not only amyloidogenesis, but also inflammation and synaptic dysfunctions. Assessing the potential of these emerging proteinases in the Alzheimer’s field opens up new research prospects to improve our knowledge of fundamental mechanisms of the disease and help us establish new therapeutic strategies.

Effects of in vivo conditions on amyloid aggregation

One of the grand challenges of biophysical chemistry is to understand the principles that govern protein misfolding and aggregation, which is a highly complex process that is sensitive to initial conditions, operates on a huge range of length- and timescales, and has products that range from protein dimers to macroscopic amyloid fibrils. Aberrant aggregation is associated with more than 25 diseases, which include Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and type II diabetes. Amyloid aggregation has been extensively studied in the test tube, therefore under conditions that are far from physiological relevance. Hence, there is dire need to extend these investigations to in vivo conditions where amyloid formation is affected by a myriad of biochemical interactions. As a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases, these interactions need to be understood in detail to develop novel therapeutic interventions, as millions of people globally suffer from neurodegenerative disorders and type II diabetes. The aim of this review is to document the progress in the research on amyloid formation from a physicochemical perspective with a special focus on the physiological factors influencing the aggregation of the amyloid-β peptide, the islet amyloid polypeptide, α-synuclein, and the hungingtin protein.

Evaluation of Cu(i) binding to the E2 domain of the amyloid precursor protein - a lesson in quantification of metal binding to proteins via ligand competition

The extracellular domain E2 of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) features a His-rich metal-binding site (denoted as the M1 site). In conjunction with surrounding basic residues, the site participates in interactions with components of the extracellular matrix including heparins, a class of negatively charged polysaccharide molecules of varying length. This work studied the chemistry of Cu(i) binding to APP E2 with the probe ligands Bcs, Bca, Fz and Fs. APP E2 forms a stable Cu(i)-mediated ternary complex with each of these anionic ligands. The complex with Bca was selected for isolation and characterization and was demonstrated, by native ESI-MS analysis, to have the stoichiometry E2 : Cu(i) : Bca = 1 : 1 : 1. Formation of these ternary complexes is specific for the APP E2 domain and requires Cu(i) coordination to the M1 site. Mutation of the M1 site was consistent with the His ligands being part of the E2 ligand set. It is likely that interactions between the negatively charged probe ligands and a positively charged patch on the surface of APP E2 are one aspect of the generation of the stable ternary complexes. Their formation prevented meaningful quantification of the affinity of Cu(i) binding to the M1 site with these probe ligands. However, the ternary complexes are disrupted by heparin, allowing reliable determination of a picomolar Cu(i) affinity for the E2/heparin complex with the Fz or Bca probe ligands. This is the first documented example of the formation of stable ternary complexes between a Cu(i) binding protein and a probe ligand. The ready disruption of the complexes by heparin identified clear 'tell-tale' signs for diagnosis of ternary complex formation and allowed a systematic review of conditions and criteria for reliable determination of affinities for metal binding via ligand competition. This study also provides new insights into a potential correlation of APP functions regulated by copper binding and heparin interaction.

Copper signalling: causes and consequences

Copper-containing enzymes perform fundamental functions by activating dioxygen (O2) and therefore allowing chemical energy-transfer for aerobic metabolism. The copper-dependence of O2 transport, metabolism and production of signalling molecules are supported by molecular systems that regulate and preserve tightly-bound static and weakly-bound dynamic cellular copper pools. Disruption of the reducing intracellular environment, characterized by glutathione shortage and ambient Cu(II) abundance drives oxidative stress and interferes with the bidirectional, copper-dependent communication between neurons and astrocytes, eventually leading to various brain disease forms. A deeper understanding of of the regulatory effects of copper on neuro-glia coupling via polyamine metabolism may reveal novel copper signalling functions and new directions for therapeutic intervention in brain disorders associated with aberrant copper metabolism.

Zinc, Carnosine, and Neurodegenerative Diseases

Zinc (Zn) is abundantly present in the brain, and accumulates in the synaptic vesicles. Synaptic Zn is released with neuronal excitation, and plays essential roles in learning and memory. Increasing evidence suggests that the disruption of Zn homeostasis is involved in various neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, a vascular type of dementia, and prion diseases. Our and other numerous studies suggest that carnosine (β-alanyl histidine) is protective against these neurodegenerative diseases. Carnosine is an endogenous dipeptide abundantly present in the skeletal muscles and in the brain, and has numerous beneficial effects such as antioxidant, metal chelating, anti-crosslinking, and anti-glycation activities. The complex of carnosine and Zn, termed polaprezinc, is widely used for Zn supplementation therapy and for the treatment of ulcers. Here, we review the link between Zn and these neurodegenerative diseases, and focus on the neuroprotective effects of carnosine. We also discuss the carnosine level in various foodstuffs and beneficial effects of dietary supplementation of carnosine.

Role of Copper in the Onset of Alzheimer's Disease Compared to Other Metals

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is characterized by amyloid plaques in patients' brain tissue. The plaques are mainly made of β-amyloid peptides and trace elements including Zn2+, Cu2+, and Fe2+. Some studies have shown that AD can be considered a type of metal dyshomeostasis. Among metal ions involved in plaques, numerous studies have focused on copper ions, which seem to be one of the main cationic elements in plaque formation. The involvement of copper in AD is controversial, as some studies show a copper deficiency in AD, and consequently a need to enhance copper levels, while other data point to copper overload and therefore a need to reduce copper levels. In this paper, the role of copper ions in AD and some contradictory reports are reviewed and discussed.

A Trishistidine Pseudopeptide with Ability to Remove Both CuΙ and CuΙΙ from the Amyloid-β Peptide and to Stop the Associated ROS Formation

The pseudopeptide L, derived from a nitrilotriacetic acid scaffold and functionalized with three histidine moieties, is reminiscent of the amino acid side chains encountered in the Alzheimer's peptide (Aβ). Its synthesis and coordination properties for CuΙ and CuΙΙ are described. L efficiently complex CuΙΙ in a square-planar geometry involving three imidazole nitrogen atoms and an amidate-Cu bond. By contrast, CuΙ is coordinated in a tetrahedral environment. The redox behavior is irreversible and follows an ECEC mechanism in accordance with the very different environments of the two redox states of the Cu center. This is in line with the observed resistance of the CuΙ complex to oxidation by oxygen and the CuΙΙ complex reduction by ascorbate. The affinities of L for CuΙΙ and CuΙ at physiological pH are larger than that reported for the Aβ peptide. Therefore, due to its peculiar Cu coordination properties, the ligand L is able to target both redox states of Cu, redox silence them and prevent reactive oxygen species production by the CuAβ complex. Because reactive oxygen species contribute to the oxidative stress, a key issue in Alzheimer's disease, this ligand thus represents a new strategy in the long route of finding molecular concepts for fighting Alzheimer's disease.

Alzheimer's disease and cigarette smoke components: effects of nicotine, PAHs, and Cd(II), Cr(III), Pb(II), Pb(IV) ions on amyloid-β peptide aggregation

Cigarette smoking is a significant risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), which is associated with extracellular brain deposits of amyloid plaques containing aggregated amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides. Aβ aggregation occurs via multiple pathways that can be influenced by various compounds. Here, we used AFM imaging and NMR, fluorescence, and mass spectrometry to monitor in vitro how Aβ aggregation is affected by the cigarette-related compounds nicotine, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with one to five aromatic rings, and the metal ions Cd(II), Cr(III), Pb(II), and Pb(IV). All PAHs and metal ions modulated the Aβ aggregation process. Cd(II), Cr(III), and Pb(II) ions displayed general electrostatic interactions with Aβ, whereas Pb(IV) ions showed specific transient binding coordination to the N-terminal Aβ segment. Thus, Pb(IV) ions are especially prone to interact with Aβ and affect its aggregation. While Pb(IV) ions affected mainly Aβ dimer and trimer formation, hydrophobic toluene mainly affected formation of larger aggregates such as tetramers. The uncharged and hydrophilic nicotine molecule showed no direct interactions with Aβ, nor did it affect Aβ aggregation. Our Aβ interaction results suggest a molecular rationale for the higher AD prevalence among smokers, and indicate that certain forms of lead in particular may constitute an environmental risk factor for AD.

Direct evidence of amyloid precursor-like protein 1 trans interactions in cell-cell adhesion platforms investigated via fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy

The amyloid precursor–like protein 1 (APLP1) plays a role in synaptic adhesion and synaptogenesis. In this work, we use quantitative fluorescence microscopy to demonstrate the existence of APLP1–APLP1 trans interaction across cell–cell junctions and propose a model explaining the molecular mechanism driving APLP1 multimerization.

The amyloid precursor–like protein 1 (APLP1) is a type I transmembrane protein that plays a role in synaptic adhesion and synaptogenesis. Past investigations indicated that APLP1 is involved in the formation of protein–protein complexes that bridge the junctions between neighboring cells. Nevertheless, APLP1–APLP1 trans interactions have never been directly observed in higher eukaryotic cells. Here, we investigated APLP1 interactions and dynamics directly in living human embryonic kidney cells using fluorescence fluctuation spectroscopy techniques, namely cross-correlation scanning fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and number and brightness analysis. Our results show that APLP1 forms homotypic trans complexes at cell–cell contacts. In the presence of zinc ions, the protein forms macroscopic clusters, exhibiting an even higher degree of trans binding and strongly reduced dynamics. Further evidence from giant plasma membrane vesicles suggests that the presence of an intact cortical cytoskeleton is required for zinc-induced cis multimerization. Subsequently, large adhesion platforms bridging interacting cells are formed through APLP1–APLP1 trans interactions. Taken together, our results provide direct evidence that APLP1 functions as a neuronal zinc-dependent adhesion protein and allow a more detailed understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving the formation of APLP1 adhesion platforms.

A vaccine with Aβ oligomer-specific mimotope attenuates cognitive deficits and brain pathologies in transgenic mice with Alzheimer's disease

Background

β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ) oligomers are initial factors used to induce Alzheimer’s disease (AD) development, and Aβ monomers have normal physiological function. The antibodies or vaccines against Aβ monomers have serious problems, such as side effects and low curative effects. Therefore, it is essential to specifically target Aβ oligomers rather than monomers for the treatment of AD.

Methods

The mimotopes of Aβ oligomers were obtained by panning the phage-displayed random peptide libraries using oligomer-specific antibodies as targets and expressed on the surface of EBY100 Saccharomyces cerevisiae to generate yeast cell base vaccines. One vaccine (AOE1) induced antibodies specifically against Aβ oligomers and was selected for further study. The APP/PS1 mice were subcutaneously immunized with AOE1 eight times. The levels and characteristics of antibodies induced by AOE1 were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The effect of AOE1 on the cognitive deficits of AD mice was tested by novel object recognition (NOR) and Y-maze. Dot blot analysis, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry were applied to measure the effects of AOE1 on Aβ pathologies, neuroinflammation, and microhemorrhages in the brains of AD mice.

Results

Eight mimotope candidates of Aβ oligomers were selected and expressed on EBY100 S. cerevisiae. Only AOE1 vaccine containing mimotope L2 induced antibodies that specifically recognized Aβ42 oligomers rather than monomers. AOE1 immunization significantly increased the AD mice’s exploration times for the novel object in the NOR test and the choices for new arms in the Y-maze test, and it reduced levels of Aβ oligomers and glial activation in the AD mouse brains. No activation of Aβ-specific T cells and microhemorrhages was observed in their brains following AOE1 vaccination.

Conclusions

AOE1 is the first vaccine applying the oligomer-specific mimotope as an immunogen, which could induce antibodies with high specificity to Aβ oligomers. AOE1 immunization attenuated Aβ pathologies and cognitive deficits in AD mice, decreased the overactivation of glial cells, and did not induce microhemorrhage in the brains of AD mice. These findings suggest that AOE1 may be a safer and more effective vaccine for AD treatment.