A Human TSC1 Variant Screening Platform in Gabaergic Cortical Interneurons for Genotype to Phenotype Assessments

Fate plasticity of interneuron specification

Neuronal subtype generation in the mammalian central nervous system is governed by competing genetic programs. The medial ganglionic eminence (MGE) produces two major cortical interneuron (IN) populations, somatostatin (Sst) and parvalbumin (Pvalb), which develop on different timelines. The extent to which external signals influence these identities remains unclear. Pvalb-positive INs are crucial for cortical circuit regulation but challenging to model in vitro. We grafted mouse MGE progenitors into diverse 2D and 3D co-culture systems, including mouse and human cortical, MGE, and thalamic models. Strikingly, only 3D human corticogenesis models promoted efficient, non-autonomous Pvalb differentiation, characterized by upregulation of Pvalb maturation markers, downregulation of Sst-specific markers, and the formation of perineuronal nets. Additionally, lineage-traced postmitotic Sst-positive INs upregulated Pvalb when grafted onto human cortical models. These findings reveal unexpected fate plasticity in MGE-derived INs, suggesting that their identities can be dynamically shaped by the environment.

Motor Control of Distinct Layer 6 Corticothalamic Feedback Circuits

Layer 6 corticothalamic (L6 CT) neurons provide massive input to the thalamus, and these feedback connections enable the cortex to influence its own sensory input by modulating thalamic excitability. However, the functional role(s) feedback serves during sensory processing is unclear. One hypothesis is that CT feedback is under the control of extrasensory signals originating from higher-order cortical areas, yet we know nothing about the mechanisms of such control. It is also unclear whether such regulation is specific to CT neurons with distinct thalamic connectivity. Using mice (either sex) combined with in vitro electrophysiology techniques, optogenetics, and retrograde labeling, we describe studies of vibrissal primary motor cortex (vM1) influences on different CT neurons in the vibrissal primary somatosensory cortex (vS1) with distinct intrathalamic axonal projections. We found that vM1 inputs are highly selective, evoking stronger postsynaptic responses in CT neurons projecting to the dual ventral posterior medial nucleus (VPm) and posterior medial nucleus (POm) located in lower L6a than VPm-only-projecting CT cells in upper L6a. A targeted analysis of the specific cells and synapses involved revealed that the greater responsiveness of Dual CT neurons was due to their distinctive intrinsic membrane properties and synaptic mechanisms. These data demonstrate that vS1 has at least two discrete L6 CT subcircuits distinguished by their thalamic projection patterns, intrinsic physiology, and functional connectivity with vM1. Our results also provide insights into how a distinct CT subcircuit may serve specialized roles specific to contextual modulation of tactile-related sensory signals in the somatosensory thalamus during active vibrissa movements.

Motor Control of Distinct Layer 6 Corticothalamic Feedback Circuits

Layer 6 corticothalamic (L6 CT) neurons provide massive input to the thalamus, and these feedback connections enable the cortex to influence its own sensory input by modulating thalamic excitability. However, the functional role(s) feedback serves during sensory processing is unclear. One hypothesis is that CT feedback is under the control of extra-sensory signals originating from higher-order cortical areas, yet we know nothing about the mechanisms of such control. It is also unclear whether such regulation is specific to CT neurons with distinct thalamic connectivity. Using mice (either sex) combined with in vitro electrophysiology techniques, optogenetics, and retrograde labeling, we describe studies of vibrissal primary motor cortex (vM1) influences on different CT neurons in the vibrissal primary somatosensory cortex (vS1) with distinct intrathalamic axonal projections. We found that vM1 inputs are highly selective, evoking stronger postsynaptic responses in Dual ventral posterior medial nucleus (VPm) and posterior medial nucleus (POm) projecting CT neurons located in lower L6a than VPm-only projecting CT cells in upper L6a. A targeted analysis of the specific cells and synapses involved revealed that the greater responsiveness of Dual CT neurons was due to their distinctive intrinsic membrane properties and synaptic mechanisms. These data demonstrate that vS1 has at least two discrete L6 CT subcircuits distinguished by their thalamic projection patterns, intrinsic physiology, and functional connectivity with vM1. Our results also provide insights into how a distinct CT subcircuit may serve specialized roles specific to contextual modulation of tactile-related sensory signals in the somatosensory thalamus during active vibrissa movements.

Tsc1 Loss in VIP-Lineage Cortical Interneurons Results in More VIP+ Interneurons and Enhanced Excitability

The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway is a powerful regulator of cell proliferation, growth, synapse maintenance and cell fate. While intensely studied for its role in cancer, the role of mTOR signaling is just beginning to be uncovered in specific cell types that are implicated in neurodevelopmental disorders. Previously, loss of the Tsc1 gene, which results in hyperactive mTOR, was shown to affect the function and molecular properties of GABAergic cortical interneurons (CINs) derived from the medial ganglionic eminence. To assess if other important classes of CINs could be impacted by mTOR dysfunction, we deleted Tsc1 in a caudal ganglionic eminence-derived interneuron group, the vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)+ subtype, whose activity disinhibits local circuits. Tsc1 mutant VIP+ CINs reduced their pattern of apoptosis from postnatal days 15-20, resulting in increased VIP+ CINs. The mutant CINs exhibited synaptic and electrophysiological properties that could contribute to the high rate of seizure activity in humans that harbor Tsc1 mutations.

Structure-Function of the Human WAC Protein in GABAergic Neurons: Towards an Understanding of Autosomal Dominant DeSanto-Shinawi Syndrome

Dysfunction of the WW domain-containing adaptor with coiled-coil, WAC, gene underlies a rare autosomal dominant disorder, DeSanto-Shinawi syndrome (DESSH). DESSH is associated with facial dysmorphia, hypotonia, and cognitive alterations, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism. How the WAC protein localizes and functions in neural cells is critical to understanding its role during development. To understand the genotype-phenotype role of WAC, we developed a knowledgebase of WAC expression, evolution, human genomics, and structural/motif analysis combined with human protein domain deletions to assess how conserved domains guide cellular distribution. Then, we assessed localization in a cell type implicated in DESSH, cortical GABAergic neurons. WAC contains conserved charged amino acids, phosphorylation signals, and enriched nuclear motifs, suggesting a role in cellular signaling and gene transcription. Human DESSH variants are found within these regions. We also discovered and tested a nuclear localization domain that impacts the cellular distribution of the protein. These data provide new insights into the potential roles of this critical developmental gene, establishing a platform to assess further translational studies, including the screening of missense genetic variants in WAC. Moreover, these studies are essential for understanding the role of human WAC variants in more diverse neurological phenotypes, including autism spectrum disorder.

Cellular signaling impacts upon GABAergic cortical interneuron development

The development and maturation of cortical GABAergic interneurons has been extensively studied, with much focus on nuclear regulation via transcription factors. While these seminal events are critical for the establishment of interneuron developmental milestones, recent studies on cellular signaling cascades have begun to elucidate some potential contributions of cell signaling during development. Here, we review studies underlying three broad signaling families, mTOR, MAPK, and Wnt/beta-catenin in cortical interneuron development. Notably, each pathway harbors signaling factors that regulate a breadth of interneuron developmental milestones and properties. Together, these events may work in conjunction with transcriptional mechanisms and other events to direct the complex diversity that emerges during cortical interneuron development and maturation.

Transition from Animal-Based to Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)-Based Models of Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Opportunities and Challenges

Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) arise from the disruption of highly coordinated mechanisms underlying brain development, which results in impaired sensory, motor and/or cognitive functions. Although rodent models have offered very relevant insights to the field, the translation of findings to clinics, particularly regarding therapeutic approaches for these diseases, remains challenging. Part of the explanation for this failure may be the genetic differences-some targets not being conserved between species-and, most importantly, the differences in regulation of gene expression. This prompts the use of human-derived models to study NDDS. The generation of human induced pluripotent stem cells (hIPSCs) added a new suitable alternative to overcome species limitations, allowing for the study of human neuronal development while maintaining the genetic background of the donor patient. Several hIPSC models of NDDs already proved their worth by mimicking several pathological phenotypes found in humans. In this review, we highlight the utility of hIPSCs to pave new paths for NDD research and development of new therapeutic tools, summarize the challenges and advances of hIPSC-culture and neuronal differentiation protocols and discuss the best way to take advantage of these models, illustrating this with examples of success for some NDDs.