Diabetes, Metformin and the Clinical Course of Covid-19: Outcomes, Mechanisms and Suggestions on the Therapeutic Use of Metformin

Metformin: Therapeutic profile in the treatment of type 2 diabetes

Metformin (dimethyl-biguanide) can claim its origins in the use of Galega officinalis as a plant treatment for symptoms ascribed to diabetes. Since the first clinical use of metformin as a glucose-lowering agent in 1957, this medicine has emerged as a first-line pharmacological option to support lifestyle interventions in the management of type 2 diabetes (T2D). It acts through multiple cellular pathways, principally in the gut, liver and muscle, to counter insulin resistance and lower blood glucose without weight gain or risk of overt hypoglycaemia. Other effects include improvements in lipid metabolism, decreased inflammation and lower long-term cardiovascular risk. Metformin is conveniently combined with other diabetes medications, can be prescribed in prediabetes to reduce the risk of progression to T2D, and is used in some regions to assist glycaemic control in pregnancy. Consistent with its diversity of actions, established safety profile and cost-effectiveness, metformin is being assessed for further possible clinical applications. The use of metformin requires adequate renal function for drug elimination, and may cause initial gastrointestinal side effects, which can be moderated by taking with meals or using an extended-release formulation. Thus, metformin serves as a valuable therapeutic resource for use throughout the natural history of T2D.

Effects of different treatments for type 2 diabetes mellitus on mortality of coronavirus disease from 2019 to 2021 in China: a multi-institutional retrospective study

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has continued for 5 years. Sporadic cases continue to occur in different locations. Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is associated with a high risk of a poor prognosis in patients with COVID-19. Successful control of blood glucose levels can effectively decrease the risks of severe infections and mortality. However, the effects of different treatments were reported differently and even adversely. This retrospective study included 4,922 patients who have been diagnosed as COVID-19 and T2DM from 138 Hubei hospitals. The clinical characteristics and outcomes were compared and calculated their risk for death using multivariate Cox regression and Kaplan-Meier curves. After adjustment of age, sex, comorbidities, and in-hospital medications, metformin and alpha-glucosidase inhibitor (AGI) use performed lower all-cause mortality (adjusted hazard ratio [HR], 0.41; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.24-0.71; p = 0.001 for metformin; 0.53, 0.35-0.80, p = 0.002 for AGIs), while insulin use was associated with increased all-cause mortality (adjusted HR, 2.07, 95% CI, 1.61-2.67, p < 0.001). After propensity score-matched (PSM) analysis, adjusted HRs for insulin, metformin, and AGIs associated with all-cause mortality were 1.32 (95% CI, 1.03-1.81; p = 0.012), 0.48 (95% CI, 0.23-0.83, p = 0.014), and 0.59 (95% CI, 0.35-0.98, p = 0.05). Therefore, metformin and AGIs might be more suitable for patients with COVID-19 and T2DM while insulin might be used with caution.

Herbal-based therapeutics for diabetic patients with SARS-Cov-2 infection

Human SARS Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has infected more than 170 million people worldwide, being responsible for about 3.5 million deaths so far. Despite ongoing investigations, there is still more to understand the mechanism of COVID-19 infection completely. However, it has been evidenced that SARS-CoV-2 can cause Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) notably in diabetic people. Approximately 35% of the patients who died of this disease had diabetes. A growing number of studies have evidenced that hyperglycemia is a significant risk factor for severe SARS-CoV-2 infection and plays a key role in COVID-19 mortality and diabetes comorbidity. The uncontrolled hyperglycemia can produce low-grade inflammation and impaired immunity-mediated cytokine storm that fail multiple organs and sudden death in diabetic patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection. More importantly, SARS-CoV-2 infection and interaction with ACE2 receptors also contribute to pancreatic and metabolic impairment. Thus, using of diabetes medications has been suggested to be beneficial in the better management of diabetic COVID-19 patients. Herbal treatments, as safe and affordable therapeutic agents, have recently attracted a lot of attention in this field. Accordingly, in this review, we intend to have a deep look into the molecular mechanisms of diabetic complications in SARS-CoV-2 infection and explore the therapeutic potentials of herbal medications and natural products in the management of diabetic COVID-19 patients based on recent studies and the existing clinical evidence.

Gene expression of protein kinase AMP-activated catalytic subunit alpha 1 (PRKAA1), solute carrier family 2 member 1 (SLC2A1) and mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) in metformin-treated type 2 diabetes patients with COVID-19: impact on inflammation markers

The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in a global health crisis that has severely impacted patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D). T2D patients have a higher risk of experiencing severe COVID-19 symptoms, hospitalization, and mortality compared to patients without diabetes. The dysregulated immune response in T2D patients can exacerbate the severity of COVID-19 symptoms. Insulin therapy, a common treatment for T2D patients, has been linked to increased mortality in COVID-19 patients with T2D. However, metformin, an anti-diabetic medication, has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties that may mitigate the cytokine storm observed in severe COVID-19 cases. In this study, we investigated how the PRKAA1, SLC2A1, and MTOR genes contribute to inflammation markers in COVID-19 patients with T2D, who were receiving either insulin or metformin therapy. Our findings revealed that metformin treatment was associated with reduced expression of genes involved in Th1/Th17 cell differentiation. These results suggest that metformin could be a potential treatment option for T2D patients with COVID-19 due to its anti-inflammatory properties, which may improve patient outcomes.

Impact of pre-existing mental health diagnoses on development of post-COVID and related symptoms: a claims data-based cohort study

This study aimed to examine the association of prior mental health diagnoses with the onset of Post-COVID-19 condition (PCC). We conducted a retrospective comparative cohort study and secondary analysis of routinely collected claims data from participants in statutory health insurance in Bavaria, Germany, from January 2015 to June 2022. Study participants were 619,560 patients with confirmed COVID-19, 42,969 with other respiratory tract infection (ORI), and 438,023 controls. Using diagnoses coded according to the German modification of the ICD-10, the associations between prior mental health diagnoses and a PCC diagnosis (primary outcome) or associated symptoms (secondary outcomes) were estimated using multiple Cox proportional hazards regression models. Mental disorders (hazard ratio [HR] 1.36, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.30-1.42), anxiety (HR 1.14, 95% CI 1.07-1.20), depression (HR 1.25, 95% CI 1.19-1.30) and somatoform disorders (HR 1.30, 95% CI 1.24-1.36) were associated with higher risks for PCC. Mental disorders were associated with the same or even greater risk for a diagnosis of malaise and fatigue in the control cohort (HR 1.71, 95% CI 1.52-1.93) and ORI cohort (HR 1.43, 95% CI 1.20-1.72), than in the COVID-19 cohort (HR 1.43, 95% CI 1.35-1.51). In summary, prior mental comorbidity was associated with an increased risk of PCC and its associated symptoms in all cohorts, not specifically in COVID-19 patients.

Metformin adverse event profile: a pharmacovigilance study based on the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) from 2004 to 2022

BACKGROUND

Metformin has the potential for treating numerous diseases, but there are still many unrecognized and unreported adverse events (AEs).

METHODS

We selected data from the United States FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) database from the first quarter (Q1) of 2004 to the fourth quarter (Q4) of 2022 for disproportionality analysis to assess the association between metformin and related adverse events.

RESULTS

In this study 10,500,295 case reports were collected from the FAERS database, of which 56,674 adverse events related to metformin were reported. A total of 643 preferred terms (PTs) and 27 system organ classes (SOCs) that were significant disproportionality conforming to the four algorithms simultaneously were included. The SOCs included metabolic and nutritional disorders (p = 0.00E + 00), gastrointestinal disorders (p = 0.00E + 00) and others. PT levels were screened for adverse drug reaction (ADR) signals such as acute pancreatitis (p = 0.00E + 00), melas syndrome, pemphigoid (p = 0.00E + 00), skin eruption (p = 0.00E + 00) and drug exposure during pregnancy (p = 0.00E + 00).

CONCLUSION

Most of our results were consistent with the specification, but some new signals of adverse reactions such as acute pancreatitis were not included. Therefore, further studies are needed to validate unlabeled adverse reactions and provide important support for clinical monitoring and risk identification of metformin.

Health impact assessment after Danio rerio long-term exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of metformin and guanylurea

The antidiabetic drug metformin (MET) and its metabolite guanylurea (GUA) have been frequently and ubiquitously detected in surface water. Consequently, there has been a consistent rise in studying the toxicity of MET and GUA in fish over the past decade. Nonetheless, it is noteworthy that no study has assessed the harmful effects both compounds might trigger on fish blood and organs after chronic exposure. Taking into consideration the data above, our research strived to accomplish two primary objectives: Firstly, to assess the effect of comparable concentrations of MET and GUA (1, 40, 100 μg/L) on the liver, gills, gut, and brain of Danio rerio after six months of flow-through exposure. Secondly, to compare the outcomes to identify which compound prompts more significant oxidative stress and apoptosis in organs and blood parameter alterations. Herein, findings indicate that both compounds induced oxidative damage and increased the expression of genes associated with apoptosis (bax, bcl2, p53, and casp3). Chronic exposure to MET and GUA also generated fluctuations in glucose, creatinine, phosphorus, liver enzymes, red and white blood count, hemoglobin, and hematocrit levels. The observed biochemical changes indicate that MET and GUA are responsible for inducing hepatic damage in fish, whereas hematological alterations suggest that both compounds cause anemia. Considering GUA altered to a more considerable extent the values of all endpoints compared to the control group, it is suggested transformation product GUA is more toxic than MET. Moreover, based on the above evidence, it can be inferred that a six-month exposure to MET and GUA can impair REDOX status and generate apoptosis in fish, adversely affecting their essential organs' functioning.

Treatable traits for long COVID

Long COVID, or post-acute COVID-19 sequelae, is experienced by an estimated one in eight adults following acute COVID-19. Long COVID is a new and complex chronic health condition that typically includes multiple symptoms that cross organ systems and fluctuate over time; a one-size-fits-all approach is, therefore, not likely to be appropriate nor relevant for long COVID treatment. 'Treatable Traits' is a personalized medicine approach, purpose-built to address the complexity and heterogeneity of complex chronic conditions. This comprehensive review aimed to understand how a treatable traits approach could be applied to long COVID, by first identifying the most prevalent long COVID treatable traits and then the available evidence for strategies to target these traits. An umbrella review of 22 systematic reviews identified 34 symptoms and complications common with long COVID, grouped into eight long COVID treatable trait clusters: neurological, chest, psychological, pain, fatigue, sleep impairment, functional impairment and other. A systematic review of randomized control trials identified 18 studies that explored different intervention approaches for long COVID prevention (k = 4) or management (k = 14). While a single study reported metformin as effective for long COVID prevention, the findings need to be replicated and consensus is required around how to define long COVID as a clinical trial endpoint. For long COVID management, current evidence supports exercise training or respiratory muscle training for long COVID treatable traits in the chest and functional limitation clusters. While there are studies exploring interventions targeting other long COVID treatable traits, further high-quality RCTs are needed, particularly targeting treatable traits in the clusters of fatigue, psychological, pain and sleep impairment.

Unveiling the potential pleiotropic effects of metformin in treating COVID-19: a comprehensive review

This review article explores the potential of metformin, a medication commonly used for type 2 diabetes, as an antiviral and anti-inflammatory agent in the context of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Metformin has demonstrated inhibitory effects on the growth of SARS-CoV-2 in cell culture models and has shown promising results in reducing viral load and achieving undetectable viral levels in clinical trials. Additionally, metformin exhibits anti-inflammatory properties by reducing the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and modulating immune cell function, which may help prevent cytokine storms associated with severe COVID-19. The drug's ability to regulate the balance between pro-inflammatory Th17 cells and anti-inflammatory Treg cells suggests its potential in mitigating inflammation and restoring T cell functionality. Furthermore, metformin's modulation of the gut microbiota, particularly changes in bacterial taxa and the production of short-chain fatty acids, may contribute to its therapeutic effects. The interplay between metformin, bile acids, the gut microbiome, glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion, and glycemic control has implications for the management of diabetes and potential interventions in COVID-19. By refreshing the current evidence, this review highlights the potential of metformin as a therapeutic option in the management of COVID-19, while also exploring its effects on the gut microbiome and immunometabolism.

The prevention and treatment of COVID-19 in patients treated with hemodialysis

Patients treated with hemodialysis are often immunocompromised due to concomitant disease. As a result, this population is at high risk of infection and mortality from COVID-19. In addition to symptomatic treatment, a series of antiviral drugs targeting COVID-19 are now emerging. However, these antivirals are used mainly in mild or moderate patients with high-risk factors for progression to severe disease and are not available as pre- or post-exposure prophylaxis for COVID-19. There is a lack of clinical data on the use of anti-COVID-19 drugs, especially in patients treated with hemodialysis, therefore, vaccination remains the main measure to prevent SARS-CoV-2 infection in these patients. Here, we review the clinical features and prognosis of patients on hemodialysis infected with SARS-CoV-2, the main anti-COVID-19 drugs currently available for clinical use, and the safety and efficacy of anti-COVID-19 drugs or COVID-19 vaccination in patients treated with hemodialysis. This information will provide a reference for the treatment and vaccination of COVID-19 in patients treated with hemodialysis and maximize the health benefits of these patients during the outbreak.

Investigating the impact of metformin on severity of COVID-19 in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus: Focusing on laboratory findings

BACKGROUND

In the terrifying pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2, diabetic patients exhibiting more severe outcomes and mortality rate is high among them. Based on recent studies, metformin as the most prescribed drug for T2DM treatment may improve severe outcomes in diabetic patients infected with SARS-CoV-2. On the other hand, abnormal laboratory findings can help to differentiate between the severe and non-severe form of COVID-19. According to the mentioned issues, the effect of metformin on severity of COVID-19 was examined in T2DM patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection.

METHODS

The study included 187 individuals diagnosed with COVID-19, 104 patients were diabetic and divided into two groups according to their anti-diabetic drugs: patients who were treated only with metformin and patients who were treated with other anti-diabetic drugs. The other participants were non-diabetic and diagnosed with COVID-19. Biochemical parameters were measured by routine laboratory methods before, during and after SARS-CoV-2 infection.

RESULTS

During infection, FBS, creatinine, ALT, AST, Ferritin and LDH were significantly lower in metformin users than non-users (p-value: .02, .01, .03, .04, .0009 and .01, respectively). Also, after recovery, there were statistically significant differences between metformin users and non-users with respect to most of the study parameters, except FBS, BUN and ALP (p-value: .51, .28 and .35, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Our result suggested that metformin might be associated with better outcomes in diabetic patients infected with SARS-CoV-2.

High Prevalence of Diabetes Among Hospitalized COVID-19 Minority Patients: Data from a Single Tertiary Hospital

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) is a common comorbidity in the minority population and is associated with poor outcomes in COVID-19 patients. We hypothesized that COVID-19 patients with pre-existing diabetes mellitus are prone to fatal outcomes compared to non-diabetic patients. We aimed to illustrate the characteristics and outcomes and identify the risk factors for in-hospital mortality of COVID-19 patients with DM.

METHODS

In this single-center retrospective study, electronic medical records of hospitalized patients with confirmed COVID-19 diagnosis at Howard University Hospital (HUH) from March 2020 to Dec 2021 were analyzed. Clinical, demographic, and serological information, as well as outcomes, were recorded and analyzed.

RESULTS

Among 463 COVID-19 patients, 66.3% (n = 307) were African Americans (AA) and 35.9% (n = 166) had diabetes, with a mean age of 64 years. The majority of the diabetic patients were AA (n = 123, 74.1%) and had a higher mortality rate (n = 26, 74.3%) compared to others. Length of stay in the hospital is significantly more for the diabetic than for the non-diabetic patients (11.3 vs. 8.3 days, p = 0.03). A higher proportion of ICU admission (32.3% vs. 17.9%, p =  < 0.001), intubation (17% vs. 11.7%, p = 0.04), and increased mortality (21.1% vs. 12.2%, p = 0.01) were identified in COVID-19 patients with DM than in those with no DM. Among DM patients, non-survivors were older (69.9 vs. 62.9 years). DM patients were more likely to have underlying hypertension (72.3% vs. 43.3%, p =  < 0.001), obesity (44.8% vs. 32.1%, p = 0.007), chronic kidney disease (23.6 vs. 11.8%, p = 0.001), and cardiovascular disease (29.5% vs. 14.3%, p = 0.001) than the non-DM patients. HbA1C above 9%, indicating poorly controlled hyperglycemia, was associated with poor outcome among the DM subjects. AST (23.5% vs. 31.3%) and creatinine (61.4% vs. 37.9%) were significantly more elevated in DM COVID-19 patients (all p-values < 0.05). The levels of serum troponin (42.5% vs. 30.9%, p = 0.03), interleukin-6 (67.2 vs. 50%, p = 0.04), ferritin (65.6% vs. 44.6%, p = 0.03), procalcitonin (58.1% vs. 46.1, p = 0.03), and D-dimers (92.8% vs. 86.5%, p = 0.04) were significantly higher in DM patients as compared to those in non-DM COVID-19 patients, indicating more susceptibility of diabetic COVID-19 patients to coagulation dysfunction and inflammatory storm.

CONCLUSION

The prevalence of DM is high among hospitalized COVID-19 patients in our cohort. While DM patients have a higher mortality rate and ICU admission than non-DM patients, other factors such as underlying comorbidities, old age, elevated creatinine, AST, serum inflammatory markers, and D-dimer are more significant predictors of fatal outcomes. DM patients had higher metabolic derangements, hypercoagulability, and severe inflammatory response. No significant difference of outcome was noted between DM patients of different races in our cohort. In the diabetic group, it appears that race may not significantly contribute to the observed mortality disparity. This could be attributed to the significant influence of diabetes, which acts as a major effector, potentially overshadowing the significance of race in this context.

Metformin for Treatment of Acute COVID-19: Systematic Review of Clinical Trial Data Against SARS-CoV-2

BACKGROUND

Observational and preclinical data suggest metformin may prevent severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outcomes.

PURPOSE

We conducted a systematic review of randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trials of metformin treatment for COVID-19 to determine whether metformin affects clinical or laboratory outcomes in individuals infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and present a structured summary of preclinical data.

STUDY SELECTION

Two independent reviewers searched PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane COVID-19 Study Register, and ClinicalTrials.gov on 1 February 2023 with no date restrictions for trials where investigators randomized adults with COVID-19 to metformin versus control and assessed clinical and/or laboratory outcomes of interest. The Cochrane Risk of Bias 2 tool was used to assess bias.

DATA EXTRACTION

Two reviewers extracted data pertaining to prespecified outcomes of each interest from each included trial.

DATA SYNTHESIS

The synthesis plan was developed a priori and was guided by Synthesis Without Meta-analysis (SWiM) guidelines. Summary tables and narrative synthesis were used (PROSPERO, 2022, CRD42022349896). Three randomized trials met inclusion criteria. In two of the trials investigators found that metformin improved clinical outcomes (prevented need for oxygen and prevented need for acute health care use), and in the third trial a larger portion of adults with diabetes were enrolled but results did show a direction of benefit similar to that of the other trials in the per-protocol group. In the largest trial, subjects were enrolled during the delta and omicron waves and vaccinated individuals were included. The certainty of evidence that metformin prevents health care use due to COVID-19 was moderate per Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria. Many preclinical studies have shown metformin to be effective against SARS-CoV-2.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations include inclusion of only three trials and heterogeneity between trials.

CONCLUSIONS

Future trials will help define the role of metformin in COVID-19 treatment guidelines.

Increased insulin resistance due to Long COVID is associated with depressive symptoms and partly predicted by the inflammatory response during acute infection

OBJECTIVE

Some months after the remission of acute COVID-19, some individuals show depressive symptoms, which are predicted by increased peak body temperature (PBT) and decreased blood oxygen saturation (SpO2). The present study aimed to examine data on whether long COVID is associated with increased insulin resistance (IR) in association with neuroimmune and oxidative (NIO) processes during the acute infectious and long COVID phases.

METHODS

This case-control, retrospective cohort study used the Homeostasis Model Assessment 2 (HOMA2) calculator© to compute ß-cell function (HOMA2%B) and insulin sensitivity (HOMA2%S) and resistance (HOMA2-IR) and administered the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD) to 86 patients with long COVID and 39 controls.

RESULTS

Long COVID (3-4 months after the acute infection) is accompanied by increased HOMA2-IR, fasting blood glucose (FBG), and insulin levels; 33.7% of the patients vs. 0% of the controls had HOMA2-IR values > 1.8, suggesting IR. Increased IR was predicted by PBT during acute infection and associated with depressive symptoms above and beyond the effects of NIO pathways (nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 [NLRP3] inflammasome, myeloperoxidase [MPO], protein oxidation). There were no significant associations between increased IR and the activated NIO pathways during long COVID.

CONCLUSION

Long COVID is associated with new-onset IR, which may contribute to onset of depressive symptoms due to long COVID by enhancing overall neurotoxicity.

Regulation of the immune system by the insulin receptor in health and disease

The signaling pathways downstream of the insulin receptor (InsR) are some of the most evolutionarily conserved pathways that regulate organism longevity and metabolism. InsR signaling is well characterized in metabolic tissues, such as liver, muscle, and fat, actively orchestrating cellular processes, including growth, survival, and nutrient metabolism. However, cells of the immune system also express the InsR and downstream signaling machinery, and there is increasing appreciation for the involvement of InsR signaling in shaping the immune response. Here, we summarize current understanding of InsR signaling pathways in different immune cell subsets and their impact on cellular metabolism, differentiation, and effector versus regulatory function. We also discuss mechanistic links between altered InsR signaling and immune dysfunction in various disease settings and conditions, with a focus on age related conditions, such as type 2 diabetes, cancer and infection vulnerability.

Current management of diabetes patients with COVID-19

INTRODUCTION

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and the 2019 coronavirus (COVID-19) appear to interact in both directions. There is mounting proof that patients with DM have a worse COVID-19 prognosis than those without it. Pharmacotherapy is also known to affect in view of the possible interplay between drugs and the pathophysiology of the above conditions in a given patient.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we discuss the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and its connections with diabetes mellitus. We also analyze the treatment modalities for COVID-19 and diabetes patients. The possible mechanisms of the different medications and their management limitations are also systematically reviewed.

EXPERT OPINION

COVID-19 management as well as its knowledge base is changing constantly. The Pharmacotherapy and the choice of drugs also need to be specifically considered in view of the concomitant presence of these conditions in a patient. Anti-diabetic agents must be carefully evaluated in diabetic patients in view of the disease's severity, blood glucose level, appropriate treatment, and other components that could aggravate adverse events. A methodical technique is anticipated to enable the safe and rational use of drug therapy in COVID-19-positive diabetic patients to take.

Current management of diabetes patients with COVID-19

INTRODUCTION

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and the 2019 coronavirus (COVID-19) appear to interact in both directions. There is mounting proof that patients with DM have a worse COVID-19 prognosis than those without it. Pharmacotherapy is also known to affect in view of the possible interplay between drugs and the pathophysiology of the above conditions in a given patient.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we discuss the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and its connections with diabetes mellitus. We also analyze the treatment modalities for COVID-19 and diabetes patients. The possible mechanisms of the different medications and their management limitations are also systematically reviewed.

EXPERT OPINION

COVID-19 management as well as its knowledge base is changing constantly. The Pharmacotherapy and the choice of drugs also need to be specifically considered in view of the concomitant presence of these conditions in a patient. Anti-diabetic agents must be carefully evaluated in diabetic patients in view of the disease's severity, blood glucose level, appropriate treatment, and other components that could aggravate adverse events. A methodical technique is anticipated to enable the safe and rational use of drug therapy in COVID-19-positive diabetic patients to take.

Association of Metformin with Mortality in COVID-19 Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Studies have demonstrated high prevalence of mortality in coronavirus disease (COVID-19) patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus; however, the effects of antidiabetic pharmacotherapy on COVID-19 complications need further exploration. The aim of the study was to explore the association of metformin use and mortality in COVID-19 patients. A literature search was conducted using the databases Medline (via PubMed) and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials until February 09, 2021. Nine studies were included in the meta-analysis, including 12,684 COVID-19 patients. The meta-analysis suggested 37% lower risk of mortality in patients receiving metformin (risk ratio: 0.63; 95% confidence interval: 0.50–0.78; p < 0.001). However, no significant difference in hospitalization days between the two groups (p = 0.197) was observed. The analysis revealed significantly lower risk of having obesity (p < 0.001), hypertension (p < 0.001), heart failure (p < 0.001), and cerebrovascular disease (p = 0.015) in the group receiving metformin. The analysis also demonstrated significantly lower risk of using anticoagulants (p = 0.015), diuretics (p < 0.001), and antiplatelets (p = 0.010) in patients receiving metformin. Our findings suggest that metformin use decreases mortality in COVID-19 patients. However, randomized studies demonstrating the consequences of metformin use are needed to understand the magnitude of the beneficial effects of metformin.

Action Mechanism of Metformin and Its Application in Hematological Malignancy Treatments: A Review

Hematologic malignancies (HMs) mainly include acute and chronic leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma and other heterogeneous tumors that seriously threaten human life and health. The common effective treatments are radiotherapy, chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), which have limited options and are prone to tumor recurrence and (or) drug resistance. Metformin is the first-line drug for the treatment of type 2 diabetes (T2DM). Recently, studies identified the potential anti-cancer ability of metformin in both T2DM patients and patients that are non-diabetic. The latest epidemiological and preclinical studies suggested a potential benefit of metformin in the prevention and treatment of patients with HM. The mechanism may involve the activation of the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) signaling pathway by metformin as well as other AMPK-independent pathways to exert anti-cancer properties. In addition, combining current conventional anti-cancer drugs with metformin may improve the efficacy and reduce adverse drug reactions. Therefore, metformin can also be used as an adjuvant therapeutic agent for HM. This paper highlights the anti-hyperglycemic effects and potential anti-cancer effects of metformin, and also compiles the in vitro and clinical trials of metformin as an anti-cancer and chemosensitizing agent for the treatment of HM. The need for future research on the use of metformin in the treatment of HM is indicated.

Metformin is associated with reduced COVID-19 severity in patients with prediabetes

AIMS

Studies suggest that metformin is associated with reduced COVID-19 severity in individuals with diabetes compared to other antihyperglycemics. We assessed if metformin is associated with reduced incidence of severe COVID-19 for patients with prediabetes or polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), common diseases that increase the risk of severe COVID-19.

METHODS

This observational, retrospective study utilized EHR data from 52 hospitals for COVID-19 patients with PCOS or prediabetes treated with metformin or levothyroxine/ondansetron (controls). After balancing via inverse probability score weighting, associations with COVID-19 severity were assessed by logistic regression.

RESULTS

In the prediabetes cohort, when compared to levothyroxine, metformin was associated with a significantly lower incidence of COVID-19 with "mild-ED" or worse (OR [95% CI]: 0.636, [0.455-0.888]) and "moderate" or worse severity (0.493 [0.339-0.718]). Compared to ondansetron, metformin was associated with lower incidence of "mild-ED" or worse severity (0.039 [0.026-0.057]), "moderate" or worse (0.045 [0.03-0.069]), "severe" or worse (0.183 [0.077-0.431]), and "mortality/hospice" (0.223 [0.071-0.694]). For PCOS, metformin showed no significant differences in severity compared to levothyroxine, but was associated with a significantly lower incidence of "mild-ED" or worse (0.101 [0.061-0.166]), and "moderate" or worse (0.094 [0.049-0.18]) COVID-19 outcome compared to ondansetron.

CONCLUSIONS

Metformin use is associated with less severe COVID-19 in patients with prediabetes or PCOS.

Crystal structure of N-((Z)-amino(((E)-amino(phenylamino)methylene) amino)methylene)benzenaminium chloride – benzo[f]isoquinolino[3,4-b][1,8]naphthyridine – tetrahydrofurane (1/2/2), C60H54ClN11O2

C60H54ClN11O2, P 1 ‾ $\overline{1}$ (no. 2), a = 9.6795(10) Å, b = 14.8391(12) Å, c = 18.0298(14) Å, α = 90.710(3)°, β = 92.506(3)°, γ = 96.274(3)°, V = 2571.4(4) Å3, Z = 2, R gt(F) = 0.0856, wR ref(F 2) = 0.2386, T = 296(2) K.

Metformin is Associated with Reduced COVID-19 Severity in Patients with Prediabetes

Background

With the continuing COVID-19 pandemic, identifying medications that improve COVID-19 outcomes is crucial. Studies suggest that use of metformin, an oral antihyperglycemic, is associated with reduced COVID-19 severity in individuals with diabetes compared to other antihyperglycemic medications. Some patients without diabetes, including those with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and prediabetes, are prescribed metformin for off-label use, which provides an opportunity to further investigate the effect of metformin on COVID-19.

Participants

In this observational, retrospective analysis, we leveraged the harmonized electronic health record data from 53 hospitals to construct cohorts of COVID-19 positive, metformin users without diabetes and propensity-weighted control users of levothyroxine (a medication for hypothyroidism that is not known to affect COVID-19 outcome) who had either PCOS (n = 282) or prediabetes (n = 3136). The primary outcome of interest was COVID-19 severity, which was classified as: mild, mild ED (emergency department), moderate, severe, or mortality/hospice.

Results

In the prediabetes cohort, metformin use was associated with a lower rate of COVID-19 with severity of mild ED or worse (OR: 0.630, 95% CI 0.450 - 0.882, p < 0.05) and a lower rate of COVID-19 with severity of moderate or worse (OR: 0.490, 95% CI 0.336 - 0.715, p < 0.001). In patients with PCOS, we found no significant association between metformin use and COVID-19 severity, although the number of patients was relatively small.

Conclusions

Metformin was associated with less severe COVID-19 in patients with prediabetes, as seen in previous studies of patients with diabetes. This is an important finding, since prediabetes affects between 19 and 38% of the US population, and COVID-19 is an ongoing public health emergency. Further observational and prospective studies will clarify the relationship between metformin and COVID-19 severity in patients with prediabetes, and whether metformin usage may reduce COVID-19 severity.

Current Strategies in Treating Cytokine Release Syndrome Triggered by Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2

Since the beginning of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the treatments and management of the deadly COVID-19 disease have made great progress. The strategies for developing novel treatments against COVID-19 include antiviral small molecule drugs, cell and gene therapies, immunomodulators, neutralizing antibodies, and combination therapies. Among them, immunomodulators are the most studied treatments. The small molecule antiviral drugs and immunoregulators are expected to be effective against viral variants of SARS-CoV-2 as these drugs target either conservative parts of the virus or common pathways of inflammation. Although the immunoregulators have shown benefits in reducing mortality of cytokine release syndrome (CRS) triggered by SARS-CoV-2 infections, extensive investigations on this class of treatment to launch novel therapies that substantially improve efficacy and reduce side effects are still warranted. Moreover, great challenges have emerged as the SARS-CoV-2 virus quickly, frequently, and continuously evolved. This review provides an update and summarizes the recent advances in the treatment of COVID-19 and in particular emphasized the strategies in managing CRS triggered by SARS-CoV-2. A brief perspective in the battle against the deadly disease was also provided.

COVID-19 and diabetes-Two giants colliding: From pathophysiology to management

Since December 2019, a new coronavirus, called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has spread around the world, causing the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. From the beginning, SARS-CoV-2 has put a strain on the health system. In fact, many patients have had severe forms of the disease with the need for hospitalization due to respiratory failure. To contain the pandemic, the most widely used approach has been lockdowns. Social restrictions have been reduced thanks to the development of vaccines and targeted therapies. However, fatal events still occur among people at high risk of serious infection, such as patients with concomitant diabetes. Different mechanisms have been proposed to explain the poor prognosis of patients with diabetes and COVID-19, but the specific cause is unclear. It is now known that insulin resistance, inflammation, and cytokine storm are involved. Moreover, SARS-CoV-2 uses the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptors to enter cells. This receptor is expressed on pancreatic beta cells and, during infection, it appears that receptor involvement may induce hyperglycemia in patients with or without diabetes. In this study, we discuss the mechanisms underlying the poor prognosis in people with COVID-19 and diabetes and what may improve the outcome in these patients.