Caryophyllene Oxide Induces Ferritinophagy by Regulating the NCOA4/FTH1/LC3 Pathway in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Anticancer potential of exosome-like nanoparticles isolated from Acorus calamus in breast cancer

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles represent a novel class of plant-based therapeutics with potential anti-cancer applications. The present study aims to isolate, characterize, and evaluate the Acorus calamus-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (ACENPs) for their cytotoxic and apoptotic effects on breast cancer cells. Nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed that ACENPs exhibited a mean hydrodynamic diameter of 122.4 ± 5.0 nm and a particle concentration of 1.58 × 1011 particles/mL. Cellular uptake studies confirmed the efficient internalization of ACENPs in MCF-7, MDA-MB-453, and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Cytotoxicity assay demonstrated a significant reduction in cell viability by 17.6%, 25%, and 35.8% in MCF-7, MDA-MB-231, and MDA-MB-453 breast cancer cells, respectively. Apoptosis induction was validated through AO/EB staining, DAPI nuclear fragmentation assays, annexin V-FITC/PI staining, and Western blot analysis of apoptosis-related proteins. Treatment with ACENPs resulted in an increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, indicating apoptotic activation. Metabolomic profiling identified bioactive compounds such as arecoline, trigonelline, asarone, and gingerol, known for their anti-cancer properties. Our study findings highlight that ACENPs could be utilized as a promising therapeutic approach for breast cancer treatment. We propose to conduct future research focusing on in vivo validation and optimizing large-scale production for clinical translation.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-025-04349-8.

The pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma: ERK/ULK1/NCOA4-mediated inhibition of iron autophagy, and Epimedium extract targeted modulation of this pathway to treat hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

The pathogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is characterized by its complexity and diversity, involving processes such as glycolysis, autophagy, and cellular immunity. Notably, the role of ERK/ULK1/NCOA4-mediated inhibition of iron autophagy in HCC pathogenesis has not been previously reported. This study provides a novel elucidation of HCC pathogenesis and identifies the clinical adjuvant therapy drug, Epimedium, as a potential treatment based on this mechanism. The research clarifies the regulatory effects of Epimedium on the ERK/ULK1/NCOA4-mediated inhibition of iron autophagy pathway in the treatment of HCC, thereby offering a scientific foundation for clinical treatment strategies and the development of innovative drugs.

PURPOSE

The objective of this study is to uncover a new aspect of HCC pathogenesis, ERK/ULK1/NCOA4-mediated inhibition of iron autophagy, and to screen for clinical targeted adjuvant therapy drugs based on this mechanism.

METHODS

A HCC rat model was induced with N-Nitrosodiethylamine (DEN). The physiological status of the HCC rats was assessed through indicators such as body weight and organ index. Liver damage in HCC rats was evaluated using hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining and biochemical markers. Additionally, untargeted metabolomics was employed to explore the pathogenesis of HCC. UPLC-Q-TOF-MS combined with network pharmacology was employed to elucidate novel mechanisms, predict pathway targets, filtrate active ingredients and analyze the biological processes and signaling pathways modulated by EPME. DEN liver cancer rats were treated with different concentrations of EPME and protein expression levels were assessed by Western blot analysis. Molecular docking techniques were utilized to assess the binding affinity between the core components of EPME and target proteins. A HepG2 liver cancer in vitro model, in combination with inhibitor (SBI-0206965), was employed to verify the modulatory effects of EPME and its active ingredients on the ERK/ULK1/NCOA4 signaling pathway. Microscale thermophoretic (MST) was employed to verify the binding ability of the EPME core components to the ULK1 protein.

RESULTS

Metabolomics combined with network pharmacology revealed a novel pathogenesis of HCC, which is ERK/ULK1/NCOA4-mediated iron autophagy inhibition. EPME can activate iron autophagy mediated by ERK/ULK1/NCOA4 through active ingredients such as icaritin, astragalin, and emodin, thereby enhancing the survival conditions of HCC-afflicted rats and mitigating liver damage and carcinogenesis, ultimately achieving therapeutic outcomes in HCC treatment.

CONCLUSION

The ERK/ULK1/NCOA4-mediated iron autophagy inhibition represents a novel therapeutic mechanism for HCC. The clinical adjuvant drug EPME may exert therapeutic effects on HCC by activating ERK/ULK1/NCOA4-mediated iron autophagy.

The Potential Therapeutic Role of Beta-Caryophyllene as a Chemosensitizer and an Inhibitor of Angiogenesis in Cancer

The natural, highly lipophilic bicyclic sesquiterpenes, Beta-Caryophyllene (BCP), was highlighted in several recent preclinical studies to enhance chemo-sensitization in chemo-resistant tumors and to efficiently inhibit angiogenesis and cancer cells' ability to invade and metastasize. Previous studies have researched the reasons for the synergistic effect of Beta-Caryophyllene in combination therapy and its role as a chemosensitizer and an inhibitor of angiogenesis through investigating the involved mechanisms and signaling molecules. These include the lipophilic nature of BCP, the selective interaction of BCP with CB2, the binding affinity of BCP to the receptor binding sites at the angiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor, and the upstream effect on JAK1/STAT3 pathway and other signaling pathways. Herein, the BCP role in enhancing chemo-sensitization of chemo-resistant tumors and in inhibiting angiogenesis and cancer cells' ability to invade and metastasize are highlighted. Beta-Caryophyllene appears to be a promising candidate in treating cancer when co-supplemented with drugs such as cisplatin, gemcitabine and sorafenib. Clinical trials are needed to validate the potential therapeutic effect of BCP as a co-supplementary drug in cancer therapy, helping to sensitize cancer response to drugs, modulating signaling pathways, and lowering the drugs' doses besides working as anti-angiogenetic drug.

A homogalacturonan-rich pectic polysaccharide isolated from Lonicera japonica Thunb. modulates galectin-4-mediated bioactivity and anti-hepatocellular carcinoma activity

L. japonica is a traditional Chinese medicine with dual-use properties. Herein, a HG-rich pectic polysaccharide, WLJP-03A, was purified from the dried flowers of L. japonica, which composed of Rha (5 %), GalA (60 %), Gal (5 %), and Ara (30 %), with a molecular weight of 28.1 kDa. WLJP-03A could be defined as an HG backbone with α-(1 → 3,5)-linked and α-(1 → 5)-linked arabinan, β-(1 → 3,6)-linked and β-(1 → 3)-linked galactan, and type II arabinogalactan side chains. Its interaction with two truncated structural domain proteins of galectin-4 (Gal-4) revealed stronger binding of WLJP-03A to Gal-4C (MIC = 15 μg/mL) than to Gal-4N (MIC = 62 μg/mL), indicating that WLJP-03A mainly interacted with the C-terminal CRD to inhibit the biological activity of Gal-4. Furthermore, in vitro antitumor assays showed that WLJP-03A could inhibit the cellular proliferation and migration of HCCLM3 cells induced by Gal-4. These results provide new insights into the structure-activity relationship between L. japonica polysaccharide and Gal-4.

Endogenous Iron(II) Self-Enriched Fenton Nanocatalyst via FTH1 Activity Inhibition and Iron(III) Reduction for Amplified Cancer Ferroptosis Therapy

Due to the increased expression of iron storage proteins in cancer cells, utilizing the endogenous iron-catalyzed Fenton reaction for cancer ferroptosis therapy has recently emerged as a prominent research focus. However, endogenous iron primarily exists within ferroxidase FTH1 in the Fe (III)-bound state, hindering the effective catalysis of the Fenton reaction. Herein, an endogenous iron(II) self-enriched Fenton nanocatalyst (BAI@cLANCs) is fabricated by encapsulating the FTH1 inhibitor baicalin (BAI) in cross-linked lipoic acid nanocarriers (cLANCs) to amplify endogenous ferroptosis. Once internalized, BAI@cLANCs are disrupted by glutathione (GSH) in tumor cells to release BAI, which inhibits FTH1 activity and hinders Fe2+ oxidation. Meanwhile, cLANCs degrade into dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA), which reduces Fe3+ to Fe2+, synergically enriching endogenous Fe2+. Simultaneously, both BAI and DHLA stimulate H2O2 production and facilitate the Fenton reaction to produce abundant ·OH, thereby triggering lipid peroxidation and inducing tumor ferroptosis. Moreover, the reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+ depletes GSH, facilitating ·OH production and inactivating glutathione peroxidase-4, ultimately amplifying tumor ferroptosis. Overall, this work highlights the potential of an endogenous iron(II) self-enriched Fenton nanocatalyst for cancer ferroptosis therapy, providing a paradigm for amplifying endogenous ferroptosis by inhibiting FTH1 activity and reducing iron(III) to enrich endogenous iron(II).

The role of ferritinophagy and ferroptosis in Alzheimer's disease

Iron is a crucial mineral element within human cells, serving as a pivotal cofactor for diverse biological enzymes. Ferritin plays a crucial role in maintaining iron homeostasis within the body through its ability to sequester and release iron. Ferritinophagy is a selective autophagic process in cells that specifically facilitates the degradation of ferritin and subsequent release of free iron, thereby regulating intracellular iron homeostasis. The nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) serves as a pivotal regulator in the entire process of ferritinophagy, facilitating its binding to ferritin and subsequent delivering to lysosomes for degradation, thereby enabling the release of free iron. The free iron ions within the cell undergo catalysis through the Fenton reaction, resulting in a substantial generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This process induces lipid peroxidation, thereby stimulating a cascade leading to cellular tissue damage and subsequent initiation of ferroptosis. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive deterioration of emotional memory and cognitive function, accompanied by mental and behavioral aberrations. The pathology of the disease is characterized by aberrant deposition of amyloid β-protein (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau protein. It has been observed that evident iron metabolism disorders and accumulation of lipid peroxides occur in AD, indicating a significant impact of ferritinophagy and ferroptosis on the pathogenesis and progression of AD. This article elucidates the process and mechanism of ferritinophagy and ferroptosis, investigating their implications in AD to identify novel targets for therapeutic intervention.

1,25-(OH)2D3 improves SD rats high-altitude pulmonary edema by inhibiting ferroptosis and ferritinophagy in alveolar epithelial cells

BACKGROUND

This study investigates the protective effects and potential mechanisms of 1,25-(OH)2D3 against high-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE).

METHODS

Hypoxia-induced rats were administered 1,25-(OH)2D3 for 24, 48, and 72 hours, and we observed lung tissue injury and pulmonary edema. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) and Western blot analyses were employed to analyze the expression of markers associated with ferroptosis and ferritinophagy in rat lungs. Metabolomics analysis was conducted to investigate changes in serum lipid metabolites. We validated the mechanism of action of 1,25-(OH)2D3 in type II alveolar epithelial cells induced by hypoxia.

RESULTS

Our results demonstrated that hypoxic exposure significantly altered sodium-water transport in the lungs, leading to edema formation. The degree of pulmonary edema was most pronounced at 48 hours of hypoxi. Treatment with 1,25-(OH)2D3 improved lung function and reduced the degree of pulmonary edema in hypoxic rats. Hypoxia-induced increases in 4-HNE and MDA levels in the lungs, along with iron accumulation, were observed. Hypoxia also resulted in elevated levels of NCOA4, LC3Ⅱ, and FTH1 proteins in the lungs. Furthermore, treatment with 1,25-(OH)2D3 significantly inhibited ferroptosis and ferritinophagy in the lungs after hypoxia. The levels of lipid metabolites, such as L-Aspartic acid and L-Fucose, were significantly elevated in the serum of hypoxic rats. After 1,25-(OH)2D3 treatment, these levels exhibited a significant reduction.

CONCLUSION

In hypoxic type II alveolar epithelial cells, 1,25-(OH)2D3 improved hypoxia-induced sodium-water transport, ferroptosis, and ferritinophagy, which were reversed by the autophagy agonist Rapamycin.By modulating ferroptosis and ferritinophagy, 1,25-(OH)2D3 mitigated the deleterious effects of hypoxia on pulmonary function.

Ferritinophagy: multifaceted roles and potential therapeutic strategies in liver diseases

Ferritinophagy, the selective autophagic degradation of ferritin to release iron, is emerging as a critical regulator of iron homeostasis and a key player in the pathogenesis of various liver diseases. This review comprehensively examines the mechanisms, regulation, and multifaceted roles of ferritinophagy in liver health and disease. Ferritinophagy is intricately regulated by several factors, including Nuclear Receptor Coactivator 4 (NCOA4), Iron regulatory proteins and signaling pathways such as mTOR and AMPK. These regulatory mechanisms ensure proper iron utilization and prevent iron overload, which can induce oxidative stress and ferroptosis. In liver diseases, ferritinophagy exhibits dual roles. In liver fibrosis, promoting ferritinophagy in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) can induce cell senescence and reduce fibrosis progression. However, in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), chronic ferritinophagy may exacerbate liver injury through iron overload and oxidative stress. In hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), ferritinophagy can be harnessed as a novel therapeutic strategy by inducing ferroptosis in cancer cells. Additionally, ferritinophagy is implicated in drug-induced liver injury and sepsis-associated liver damage, highlighting its broad impact on liver pathology. This review also explores the crosstalk between ferritinophagy and other selective autophagy pathways, such as mitophagy and lipophagy, which collectively influence cellular homeostasis and disease progression. Understanding these interactions is essential for developing comprehensive therapeutic strategies targeting multiple autophagy pathways. In summary, ferritinophagy is a complex and dynamic process with significant implications for liver diseases. This review provides an in-depth analysis of ferritinophagy's regulatory mechanisms and its potential as a therapeutic target, emphasizing the need for further research to elucidate its role in liver health and disease.

Single-atom-doped piezocatalyst induces copper-free cuproptosis in tumor therapy

Cuproptosis, a distinct cell death pathway, has been integrated into nanomedicine for disease theranostics. However, current nanosystems inducing cuproptosis rely on exogenous toxic copper ions, limiting the scope of biomaterials. Developing nanoplatforms that induce cuproptosis without exogenous copper holds substantial promise. Here, we engineered a two-dimensional iron (Fe) single-atom-doped molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) piezocatalyst (Fe-MoS2) for tumor therapy. Incorporating single Fe atoms enhances MoS2 piezoelectric polarization via charge redistribution and modulates Fe and Mo oxidation states, enabling multifaceted enzymatic activities, including peroxidase-, glutathione oxidase-, oxidase-, and catalase-like activities. Upon ultrasound stimulation, the Fe-MoS2 nanocatalyst generates reactive oxygen species and depletes glutathione via synergistic piezocatalytic and enzyocatalytic effects, disrupting copper ion homeostasis and inducing cuproptosis, concurrently triggering ferroptosis and ferritinophagy, which collectively enhances tumor suppression. This study represents the first paradigm to introduce a copper-free piezocatalyst for initiating cuproptosis, substantially advancing the applications of cuproptosis in tumor therapy.

METTL3-mediated m6A modification of SLC7A11 enhances nasopharyngeal carcinoma radioresistance by inhibiting ferroptosis

Radiotherapy is the primary treatment for nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC); nonetheless, radioresistance remains the leading cause of localized recurrence. Our study demonstrates a significant increase in the N6-methyladenosine (m6A) methylase METTL3 in NPC and other tumors. Mechanistically, METTL3 acts as an m6A methylase, enhancing the m6A modification of the solute carrier family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11) transcript, which increases its stability and expression, thereby inhibiting radiation-induced ferroptosis and ultimately inducing radioresistance in NPC. Furthermore, silencing SLC7A11 or employing the ferroptosis inducer Erastin negated the promoting effect of METTL3 on NPC cell radioresistance. These findings suggest that METTL3 could be a novel therapeutic target for overcoming radiotherapy resistance in NPC.

Natural Source of Drugs Targeting Central Nervous System Tumors-Focus on NAD(P)H Oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) Activity

Central nervous system (CNS) tumors involve a large and diverse group of malignancies that arise from various cell types within the brain tissue. Although there are advances in treatments, CNS tumors still remain challenging, due to their complex biology and the delicate nature of the surrounding tissue. NAD(P)H O=oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) is an enzyme that plays a critical role in the detoxification of quinones, protecting cells from oxidative stress. In CNS tumors this enzyme is often overexpressed, which contributes to the resistance of tumor cells to chemotherapy by enhancing their antioxidant defenses. NQO1 influences the progression of CNS tumors by affecting downstream signaling pathways, such as those involving the transcription factor SNAIL, as well as others that are associated with tumor behavior. Plants represent a valuable source of numerous constituents with different chemical structures known to affect different molecular signaling pathways associated with different pathologies.

Tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 promoted the progression of CRC via modulating the PI3K/BRD4/TFEB signaling induced ferroptosis

OBJECTIVE

To elucidate the mechanism by which tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 protects CRC through modulation of TFEB-mediated ferritinophagy, thereby suppressing ROS and ferroptosis.

METHODS

SW480 and SW620 cells, in the logarithmic growth phase, were treated with or without the SHP2 inhibitor PHPS1, the activator Trichomide A, EGF, or MMP inhibitors, and randomly assigned to four groups. Additionally, SW480 cells in the logarithmic phase underwent treatments with EGF, the ferroptosis inducer erastin, Trichomide A, or the curcumin analog C1, forming seven groups. Cell migration assessment in these groups employed scratch and Transwell assays. Protein expression analysis of total SHP2, total PI3K, p-SHP2, p-PI3K, p-TFEB, TFEB, SQSTM1, LC3, LAMP2, NCOA4, FTH1, GPX4, NOX4, and ACSL4 in the seven SW480 groups was conducted through Western blot and immunofluorescence. Apoptosis analysis was performed on these seven groups, while gene co-expression analysis utilized bioinformatics. SW480 and CCD-841CoN cells were categorized into four groups, undergoing treatment with saline, EGFR-OE lentivirus, SHP2-KD lentivirus, or SHP2-OE lentivirus. Western blot analysis in SW480 cells detected EGFR, total SHP2, p-SHP2, GPX4, and ACSL4 proteins, and tumor volume observations were conducted in a nude mouse xenograft model. Western blot also evaluated total SHP2, p-SHP2, GPX4, and ACSL4 protein expression in CCD-841CoN cells.

RESULTS

Bioinformatics analysis revealed correlations between EGFR and SHP2, SHP2 and PIK3CA, SHP2 and MAPK1, BRK4 and HIF1A, HIF1A and NCOA4, as well as TFEB and FTH1. Scratch and Transwell assays showed that SHP2 diminishes the migratory capacity of SW480 and SW620 cells. Western blot and immunofluorescence demonstrated that EGFR activation of SHP2 markedly elevated p-TFEB levels while reducing TFEB protein expression. EGF stimulation enhanced the expression of FTH1, GPX4, NOX4, and ACSL4. Combined stimulation with EGF and SHP2 further amplified the expression of p-SHP2, p-TFEB, and NCOA4 while reducing TFEB, SQSTM1, LC3, and LAMP2. Erastin augmented FTH1, GPX4, NOX4, and ACSL4 expression while decreasing p-SHP2, p-TFEB, TFEB, SQSTM1, LC3, LAMP2, and NCOA4. TFEB activation suppressed p-SHP2, p-TFEB, NCOA4, FTH1, and GPX4 expression, while promoting TFEB, SQSTM1, LC3, LAMP2, NOX4, and ACSL4 expression. Apoptosis assays indicated that SHP2 activation decelerated apoptosis in SW480 cells, whereas erastin under EGF stimulation accelerated apoptosis, as did TFEB activation. Western blot results in SW480 cells displayed that overexpression of EGFR or SHP2 significantly increased total SHP2, p-SHP2, and GPX4 expression while decreasing ACSL4 levels. SHP2 knockdown decreased total SHP2, p-SHP2, and GPX4 expression, with an increase in ACSL4 expression. In CCD-841CoN cells, overexpression of EGFR or SHP2 resulted in a decrease in p-SHP2 and an increase in total SHP2, more pronounced with SHP2 overexpression, while GPX4 and ACSL4 levels remained stable. SHP2 knockdown led to reduced EGFR, total SHP2, p-SHP2, and GPX4 expression, without a significant impact on ACSL4 levels. The nude mouse xenograft model demonstrated that EGFR overexpression significantly increased tumor size, whereas SHP2 overexpression markedly decreased tumor volume. SHP2 knockdown resulted in significantly larger tumors.

CONCLUSION

SHP2 advances CRC progression by modulating TFEB-mediated ferritinophagy, suppressing ROS and ferroptosis. Targeting SHP2 presents a promising therapeutic strategy for CRC.

Caryophyllene Oxide, a Bicyclic Terpenoid Isolated from Annona macroprophyllata with Antitumor Activity: In Vivo, In Vitro, and In Silico Studies

The Annona genus contains some species used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment cancer, including Annona macroprophyllata (A. macroprophyllata). The present study aimed to investigate the anticancer activity of caryophyllene oxide (CO) isolated from A. macroprophyllata using in vivo, in vitro, and in silico approaches. The identification of CO was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy and NMR methods. Antilymphoma activity was evaluated in male and female Balb/c mice inoculated with U-937 cells. Cytotoxic activity was evaluated using the WST method and flow cytometry was used to determine the type of cell death. Acute oral toxicity was determined, and a molecular docking study was performed using target proteins associated with cancer, including, HMG-CoA, Bcl-2, Mcl-1, and VEGFR-2. Results showed that CO exhibited significant antilymphoma and cytotoxic activities, and its effects were comparable to MTX. In addition, flow cytometry showed that the anticancer activity of CO could be mediated by the induction of late apoptosis and necrosis. The result for the acute oral toxicity of CO was classified in category 4, suggesting it is low risk. Finally, molecular coupling studies showed that CO had more affinity for the enzymes HMG-CoA reductase and Bcl-2. Our study provides evidences that CO is a potential anticancer agent for the treatment of histiocytic lymphoma.

Chronic exposure to polystyrene microplastics induces renal fibrosis via ferroptosis

With the increasing prevalence of microplastics (MPs) in the environment, human health has become a growing concern. After entering the human body, MPs accumulate in the kidneys, indicating that the kidneys are their major target organs. This study investigated nephrotoxicity associated with MPs, with a specific focus on polystyrene (PS) MPs and amino-functionalized polystyrene (PS-NH2) MPs. Although previous studies have documented the nephrotoxic effects associated with short-term exposure to MPs, the mechanisms of kidney toxicity caused by chronic long-term exposure to MPs remain largely unclear. In animal models, mice were exposed to MPs (10 mg/L) at concentrations that are accessible to humans, administered via drinking water over a period of six months. These findings indicate that MPs can induce renal fibrosis by facilitating the onset of inflammation and accumulation of a substantial number of inflammatory cells. Our in vitro study showed that long-term exposure to MPs (60 μg/mL) induced ferroptosis in renal tubular epithelial cells via ferritinophagy and secreted TGF-β1, leading to renal fibroblast activation. Conversely, the application of Fer-1, a ferroptosis inhibitor, prevents ferroptosis in renal epithelial cells and reverses the activation of renal fibroblasts. Our study identified a novel toxicity mechanism for renal fibrosis induced by MPs exposure, offering new insights into the detrimental effects of environmental MPs on human health.

Copper exposure promotes ferroptosis of chicken (Gallus gallus) kidney cells and causes kidney injury

PURPOSE

While copper (Cu) is essential for biological organisms, excessive Cu can be harmful. Ferroptosis is a programmed cell death pathway, but the role of ferroptosis in renal injury induced by Cu is limited. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of ferroptosis in kidney injury in chickens and the molecular mechanism by which Cu promotes renal ferroptosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chicken were subjected to Cu treatment by artificially adding excess Cu to the basal diet (the Cu concentration in the diet was supplemented to 110-330 mg/kg), and the impact on kidney fibrosis, tissue structure, and ferroptosis-related molecular markers was studied. Then, the expression levels of genes and proteins related to ferroptosis, iron metabolism and ferroautophagy were detected to explore the promoting effect of Cu on ferroptosis in chicken kidney.

MAIN FINDINGS

Cu treatment resulted in significant fibrosis and tissue structure damage in chicken kidneys. Molecular analysis revealed a significant upregulation of LC3Ⅱ, P62, ATG5, and NCOA4, along with a decrease in FTH1 and FTL protein levels. Additionally, crucial markers of ferroptosis, including the loss of GPX4, SLC7A11, and FSP1, and an increase in PTGS2 and ACSL4 protein levels, were observed in chicken kidneys after Cu exposure.

CONCLUSION

Our study showed that dietary Cu excess caused kidney injury in brochickens and exhibited ferroptosis-related features, including lipid peroxidation, reduction of ferritin, and downregulation of FSP1 and GPX4. These results indicate that excess Cu can induce renal ferroptosis and lead to kidney injury in chickens. This study highlights the complex interplay between Cu ions and ferroptosis in the context of renal injury and provides a new perspective for understanding the mechanism of Cu-induced renal injury.

Targeting Hepatic Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs) and Related Drug Resistance by Small Interfering RNA (siRNA)

Tumor recurrence after curative therapy and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells' resistance to conventional therapies is the reasons for the worse clinical results of HCC patients. A tiny population of cancer cells with a strong potential for self-renewal, differentiation, and tumorigenesis has been identified as cancer stem cells (CSCs). The discovery of CSC surface markers and the separation of CSC subpopulations from HCC cells have been made possible by recent developments in the study of hepatic (liver) CSCs. Hepatic CSC surface markers include epithelial cell adhesion molecules (EpCAM), CD133, CD90, CD13, CD44, OV-6, ALDH, and K19. CSCs have a significant influence on the development of cancer, invasiveness, self-renewal, metastasis, and drug resistance in HCC, and thus provide a therapeutic chance to treat HCC and avoid its recurrence. Therefore, it is essential to develop treatment approaches that specifically and effectively target hepatic stem cells. Given this, one potential treatment approach is to use particular small interfering RNA (siRNA) to target CSC, disrupting their behavior and microenvironment as well as changing their epigenetic state. The characteristics of CSCs in HCC are outlined in this study, along with new treatment approaches based on siRNA that may be used to target hepatic CSCs and overcome HCC resistance to traditional therapies.

MT1G promotes iron autophagy and inhibits the function of gastric cancer cell lines by intervening in GPX4/SQSTM1

Gastric cancer (GC) is the fifth most common cancer and the third most common cause of cancer death globally, with high invasiveness, high recurrence rate, and poor prognosis. Multiple studies have shown that Metallothionein-1G (MT1G) is closely associated with oxidative stress, ferroptosis, and autophagy. However, the role and potential mechanisms of MT1G in GC have not been fully elucidated. This study aims to explore the biological functions and regulatory mechanisms of MT1G in GC. Perform bioinformatics analysis using the TCGA database to investigate the expression of MT1G in GC. RT-qPCR and Western blot were used to detect the expression of MT1G, ferroptosis related proteins, autophagy related proteins and ARNTL clock autophagy related proteins in Hgc27, MKN45 and AGS cell lines. Exploring the biological functions of MT1G overexpressing GC cell lines through wound healing and transwell experiments. Use specific fluorescence probes to examine mitochondrial membrane potential and Fe2+ fluorescence intensity. Using immunoprecipitation analysis (CO-IP) to elucidate the association between GC cell lines GPX4, SQSTM and ARNTL. Use flow cytometry to detect ROS expression. Observation of autophagy related morphological changes in cells using transmission electron microscopy. Compared with gastric mucosal cell lines, the expression of MT1G is decreased in three gastric cancer cell lines (Hgc27, MKN45 and AGS). Overexpression of MT1G inhibits the proliferation, migration, and invasion functions of GC cells, reduces SOD and GSH content, increases MDA content, cause the mitochondrial membrane potential to weaken and promote the transformation of JC-1 aggregates to JC-1 monomer, increases Fe2+, affects ROS, and reduces GPX4 and SLC7A11 protein expression, promoting ferroptosis. Overexpression of MT1G promotes the transformation of LC3B I to LC3B II, reduces SQSTM1 protein expression, and leads to the appearance of more autophagosomes and autolysosomes at low magnification. At high magnification, mitochondrial autophagy, endoplasmic reticulum autophagy, lipid droplet autophagy, and wrinkled mitochondrial cristae are observed, promoting autophagy. Overexpression of MT1G inhibits GPX4, thereby affecting SQSTM1 as a vector to promote ARNTL autophagy and EGLN2, promoting ARNTL clock autophagy through the GPX4/SQSTM1 axis. Our research findings elucidate that overexpression of MT1G promotes iron autophagy centered around ARNTL in GC cells via the GPX4/SQSTM1 axis, thereby inhibiting GC cell function and providing a new molecular mechanism and therapeutic target for the development of GC.

New insights into crosstalk between Nrf2 pathway and ferroptosis in lung disease

Ferroptosis is a distinctive process of cellular demise that is linked to amino acid metabolism, lipid oxidation, and iron oxidation. The ferroptosis cascade genes, which are closely associated with the onset of lung diseases, are among the regulatory targets of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). Although the regulation of ferroptosis is mostly mediated by Nrf2, the precise roles and underlying regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis and Nrf2 in lung illness remain unclear. This review provides new insights from recent discoveries involving the modulation of Nrf2 and ferroptosis in a range of lung diseases. It also systematically describes regulatory mechanisms involving lipid peroxidation, intracellular antioxidant levels, ubiquitination of Nrf2, and expression of FSP1 and GPX4. Finally, it summarises active ingredients and drugs with potential for the treatment of lung diseases. With the overarching aim of expediting improvements in treatment, this review provides a reference for novel therapeutic mechanisms and offers suggestions for the development of new medications for a variety of lung disorders.

The Crosstalk between Autophagy and Nrf2 Signaling in Cancer: from Biology to Clinical Applications

Autophagy is a catabolic process that has been conserved throughout evolution, serving to degrade and recycle cellular components and damaged organelles. Autophagy is activated under various stress conditions, such as nutrient deprivation, viral infections, and genotoxic stress, and operates in conjunction with other stress response pathways to mitigate oxidative damage and maintain cellular homeostasis. One such pathway is the Nrf2-Keap1-ARE signaling axis, which functions as an intrinsic antioxidant defense mechanism and has been implicated in cancer chemoprevention, tumor progression, and drug resistance. Recent research has identified a link between impaired autophagy, mediated by the autophagy receptor protein p62, and the activation of the Nrf2 pathway. Specifically, p62 facilitates Keap1 degradation through selective autophagy, leading to the translocation of Nrf2 into the nucleus, where it transcriptionally activates downstream antioxidant enzyme expression, thus safeguarding cells from oxidative stress. Furthermore, Nrf2 regulates p62 transcription, so a positive feedback loop involving p62, Keap1, and Nrf2 is established, which amplifies the protective effects on cells. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the roles of Nrf2 and autophagy in cancer progression, the regulatory interactions between the Nrf2 pathway and autophagy, and the potential applications of the Nrf2-autophagy signaling axis in cancer therapy.

Ferroptosis: a new promising target for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the sixed most common malignant tumor in the world. The study for HCC is mired in the predicament confronted with the difficulty of early diagnosis and high drug resistance, the survival rate of patients with HCC being low. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent cell death, has been discovered in recent years as a cell death means with tremendous potential to fight against cancer. The in-depth researches for iron metabolism, lipid peroxidation and dysregulation of antioxidant defense have brought about tangible progress in the firmament of ferroptosis with more and more results showing close connections between ferroptosis and HCC. The potential role of ferroptosis has been widely used in chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and nanotherapy, with the development of various new drugs significantly improving the prognosis of patients. Based on the characteristics and mechanisms of ferroptosis, this article further focuses on the main signaling pathways and promising treatments of HCC, envisioning that existing problems in regard with ferroptosis and HCC could be grappled with in the foreseeable future.

Dexmedetomidine mitigates lidocaine-induced spinal cord injury by repressing ferritinophagy-mediated ferroptosis by increasing CISD2 expression in rat models

Dexmedetomidine (DEX) has been confirmed to exert neuroprotective effects in various nerve injury models by regulating ferroptosis, including spinal cord injury (SCI). Although it has been established that CDGSH iron sulfur domain 2 (CISD2) can regulate ferroptosis, whether DEX can regulate ferroptosis by CISD2 in SCI remains unclear. Lidocaine was used to induce PC12 cells and stimulate rats to establish SCI models in vitro and in vivo. MTT assays were performed to analyze cell viability. Ferroptosis was assessed by determining the levels of cellular reactive axygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), and Fe2+. Ferritinophagy was analyzed by LysoTracker staining, FerroOrange staining, and immunofluorescence. Western blotting was carried out to quantify the levels of several proteins. Fluorescence microscopy was also used to observe cell autophagy. The morphology of mitochondria within the tissue was observed under transmission electron microscopy (TEM). DEX treatment weakened lidocaine-induced elevation of ROS, Fe2+, and MDA and reduced GSH in PC12 cells, indicating that DEX treatment weakened lidocaine-induced ferroptosis in PC12 cells. Similarly, lidocaine promoted autophagy, Fe2+, and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) in PC12 cells and suppressed ferritin and p62 protein levels, indicating that DEX could weaken lidocaine-induced ferritinophagy in PC12 cells. DEX treatment improved the BBB score, reduced tissue damage, increased the number of neurons, and alleviated mitochondrial damage by inhibiting ferroptosis and ferritinophagy in lidocaine-induced SCI rat models. The decreased CISD2, ferritin heavy chain 1 (FTH1), solute carrier family 7-member 11-glutathione (SLC7A11), and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) protein levels and the elevated nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) protein levels in rat models in the lidocaine group were weakened by DEX treatment. Moreover, CISD2 inhibition reversed the inhibitory effects of DEX treatment on lidocaine-induced ferroptosis and ferritinophagy in PC12 cells significantly. Taken together, DEX treatment could impair lidocaine-induced SCI by inhibiting ferroptosis and ferritinophagy by upregulating CISD2 in rat models.

Deferoxamine alleviates chondrocyte senescence and osteoarthritis progression by maintaining iron homeostasis

BACKGROUND

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent age-related disease characterized by the gradual deterioration of cartilage. The involvement of chondrocyte senescence is crucial in the pathogenesis of OA. Desferoxamine (DFO) is an iron chelator with therapeutic potential in various diseases. However, the relationship of chondrocyte senescence and iron homeostasis is largely unknown.

METHODS

Chondrocyte senescence was induced using tert-butyl hydroperoxide (TBHP), and the impact of DFO on chondrocyte senescence and iron metabolism was assessed through techniques such as western blotting, qRT-PCR, and β-Galactosidase staining. To assess the impact of DFO on chondrocyte senescence and the progression of osteoarthritis (OA), the surgical destabilization of the medial meniscus model was established.

RESULTS

In chondrocytes, TBHP administration resulted in elevated expression of P16, P21, and P53, as well as alterations in SA-β-gal staining. Nevertheless, DFO effectively mitigated chondrocyte senescence induced by TBHP, and reversed the decrease in collagen II expression and increase in MMP13 expression caused by TBHP. Mechanismly, TBHP induced NCOA4 expression and iron release in chondrocytes. Excessive iron could induce chondrocyte senescence, whereas, DFO could inhibit NCOA4 expression and restore ferritin level, and chelate excessive iron. Importantly, intra-articular injection of DFO enhanced collagen II expression and reduced expression of P16, P21, and MMP13 of cartilage in OA mice, and delayed cartilage degeneration.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, this study provides evidence that DFO has the potential to alleviate chondrocyte senescence induced by TBHP and slow down the progression of osteoarthritis (OA) by effectively chelating excessive iron. These findings suggest that iron chelation could be a promising therapeutic strategy for treating OA.

Environmentally relevant levels of Cd and Mo coexposure induces ferroptosis and excess ferritinophagy through AMPK/mTOR axis in duck myocardium

Cadmium (Cd) and excess molybdenum (Mo) are multiorgan toxic, but the detrimental impacts of Cd and/or Mo on poultry have not been fully clarified. Thence, a 16-week sub-chronic toxic experiment was executed with ducks to assess the toxicity of Cd and/or Mo. Our data substantiated that Cd and Mo coexposure evidently reduced GSH-Px, GSH, T-SOD, and CAT activities and elevated H2O2 and MDA concentrations in myocardium. What is more, the study suggested that Cd and Mo united exposure synergistically elevated Fe2+ content in myocardium and activated AMPK/mTOR axis, then induced ferroptosis by obviously upregulating ACSL4, PTGS2, and TFRC expression levels and downregulating SLC7A11, GPX4, FPN1, FTL1, and FTH1 expression levels. Additionally, Cd and Mo coexposure further caused excessive ferritinophagy by observably increasing autophagosomes, the colocalization of endogenous FTH1 and LC3, ATG5, ATG7, LC3II/LC3I, NCOA4, and FTH1 expression levels. In brief, this study for the first time substantiated that Cd and Mo united exposure synergistically induced ferroptosis and excess ferritinophagy by AMPK/mTOR axis, finally augmenting myocardium injure in ducks, which will offer an additional view on united toxicity between two heavy metals on poultry.

Mir22hg facilitates ferritinophagy-mediated ferroptosis in sepsis by recruiting the m6A reader YTHDC1 and enhancing Angptl4 mRNA stability

BACKGROUND

Ferritinophagy-mediated ferroptosis plays a crucial role in fighting pathogen aggression. The long non-coding RNA Mir22hg is involved in the regulation of ferroptosis and aberrantly overexpression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced sepsis mice, but whether it regulates sepsis through ferritinophagy-mediated ferroptosis is unclear.

METHODS

Mir22hg was screened by bioinformatics analysis. Ferroptosis was assessed by assaying malondialdehyde (MDA), reactive oxygen species (ROS), and Fe2+ levels, glutathione (GSH) activity, as well as ferroptosis-related proteins GPX4 and SLC3A2 by using matched kits and performing western blot. Ferritinophagy was assessed by Lyso tracker staining and FerroOrange staining, immunofluorescence analysis of Ferritin and LC-3, and western blot analysis of LC-3II/I, p62, FTH1, and NCOA4. The bind of YTH domain containing 1 (YTHDC1) to Mir22hg or angiopoietin-like-4 (Angptl4) was verified by RNA pull-down and/or immunoprecipitation (RIP) assays.

RESULTS

Mir22hg silencing lightened ferroptosis and ferritinophagy in LPS-induced MLE-12 cells and sepsis mouse models, as presented by the downregulated MDA, ROS, Fe2+, NCOA4, and SLC3A2 levels, upregulated GPX4, GSH, and FTH1 levels, along with a decrease in autophagy. Mir22hg could bind to the m6A reader YTHDC1 without affecting its expression. Mechanistically, Mir22hg enhanced Angptl4 mRNA stability through recruiting the m6A reader YTHDC1. Furthermore, Angptl4 overexpression partly overturned Mir22hg inhibition-mediated effects on ferroptosis and ferritinophagy in LPS-induced MLE-12 cells.

CONCLUSION

Mir22hg contributed to in ferritinophagy-mediated ferroptosis in sepsis via recruiting the m6A reader YTHDC1 and strengthening Angptl4 mRNA stability, highlighting that Mir22hg may be a potential target for sepsis treatment based on ferroptosis.

Prevention of supercritical carbon dioxide fluid extract from Chrysanthemum indicum Linnén on cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas progression following UV irradiation in mice

Chrysanthemum indicum Linnén (C. indicum), a medicinal and food herb with various bioactive components, may be of beneficial use in cosmetics and the treatment of skin-related diseases. However, to date, few studies have been reported on its potential preventive and therapeutic effects on skin cancer. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the effect and potential mechanism of action of supercritical carbon dioxide extract from C. indicum (CISCFE) on UV-induced skin cancer in a mouse model. Kunming mice were allocated randomly to five treatment groups: Sham, model, low concentration CISCFE, high concentration CISCFE and positive control nicotinamide groups. The dorsal skin of mice was irradiated with UV light for 31 weeks. Histopathological changes, ELISA assays, immunohistochemical analysis and western blotting were performed to investigate the potential therapeutic effects of CISCFE. The results showed that CISCFE alleviated skin oxidative and inflammatory damage in a UV-induced mouse model of skin cancer. Moreover, CISCFE suppressed abnormal activation of proto-oncogene c-Myc and the overexpression of Ki-67 and VEGF, and increased expression of the anti-oncogene PTEN, thereby reducing abnormal proliferation of the epidermis and blood vessels. Additionally, CISCFE increased the protein expression levels of NAD-dependent protein deacetylase sirtuin-1 (SIRT1), Kelch-like ECH associated protein 1 (Keap1) and inhibited the expression of nuclear factor 2 erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), phosphorylated (p)-p62 (Ser 349), p-p65 and acetyl-p65 proteins in a UV-induced skin cancer mouse model. In summary, CISCFE exhibited potent anti-skin cancer activity, which may be attributed its potential effects on the p62/Keap1-Nrf2 and SIRT1/NF-κB pathways.

Targeted ferritinophagy in gastrointestinal cancer: from molecular mechanisms to implications

Gastrointestinal cancer is a significant global health burden, necessitating the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Emerging evidence has highlighted the potential of targeting ferritinophagy as a promising approach for the treatment of gastrointestinal cancer. Ferritinophagy is a form of selective autophagy that is mediated by the nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4). This process plays a crucial role in regulating cellular iron homeostasis and has been implicated in various pathological conditions, including cancer. This review discusses the molecular mechanisms underlying ferritinophagy and its relevance to gastrointestinal cancer. Furthermore, we highlight the potential therapeutic implications of targeting ferritinophagy in gastrointestinal cancer. Several approaches have been proposed to modulate ferritinophagy, including small molecule inhibitors and immunotherapeutic strategies. We discuss the advantages and challenges associated with these therapeutic interventions and provide insights into their potential clinical applications.

Current Progress of Ferroptosis Study in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Ferroptosis, an emerging type of programmed cell death, is initiated by iron-dependent and excessive ROS-mediated lipid peroxidation, which eventually leads to plasma membrane rupture and cell death. Many canonical signalling pathways and biological processes are involved in ferroptosis. Furthermore, cancer cells are more susceptible to ferroptosis due to the high load of ROS and unique metabolic characteristics, including iron requirements. Recent investigations have revealed that ferroptosis plays a crucial role in the progression of tumours, especially HCC. Specifically, the induction of ferroptosis can not only inhibit the growth of hepatoma cells, thereby reversing tumorigenesis, but also improves the efficacy of immunotherapy and enhances the antitumour immune response. Therefore, triggering ferroptosis has become a new therapeutic strategy for cancer therapy. In this review, we summarize the characteristics of ferroptosis based on its underlying mechanism and role in HCC and provide possible therapeutic applications.

Investigating autophagy and intricate cellular mechanisms in hepatocellular carcinoma: Emphasis on cell death mechanism crosstalk

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) stands as a formidable global health challenge due to its prevalence, marked by high mortality and morbidity rates. This cancer type exhibits a multifaceted etiology, prominently linked to viral infections, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, and genomic mutations. The inherent heterogeneity of HCC, coupled with its proclivity for developing drug resistance, presents formidable obstacles to effective therapeutic interventions. Autophagy, a fundamental catabolic process, plays a pivotal role in maintaining cellular homeostasis, responding to stressors such as nutrient deprivation. In the context of HCC, tumor cells exploit autophagy, either augmenting or impeding its activity, thereby influencing tumorigenesis. This comprehensive review underscores the dualistic role of autophagy in HCC, acting as both a pro-survival and pro-death mechanism, impacting the trajectory of tumorigenesis. The anti-carcinogenic potential of autophagy is evident in its ability to enhance apoptosis and ferroptosis in HCC cells. Pertinently, dysregulated autophagy fosters drug resistance in the carcinogenic context. Both genomic and epigenetic factors can regulate autophagy in HCC progression. Recognizing the paramount importance of autophagy in HCC progression, this review introduces pharmacological compounds capable of modulating autophagy-either inducing or inhibiting it, as promising avenues in HCC therapy.

Ferroptosis targeting natural compounds as a promising approach for developing potent liver cancer agents

Liver cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. However, treatment options, including surgical resection, transplantation, and molecular drug therapies, are of limited effectiveness. Recent studies have demonstrated that suppressing ferroptosis might be a pivotal signal for liver cancer initiation, thus providing a new way to combat liver cancer. Ferroptosis is a distinct form of controlled cell death that differs from conventional cell death routes like apoptosis, necrosis, and pyroptosis. It results from intracellular iron overload, which raises iron-dependent reactive oxygen species. This, in turn, leads to the accumulation of lipid peroxides that further result in oxidative damage to cell membranes, disrupt normal functioning, and ultimately speed up the ferroptosis phenomenon. Ferroptosis regulation is intricately linked to cellular physiological processes, encompassing iron metabolism, lipid metabolism, and the equilibrium between oxygen-free radical reactions and lipid peroxidation. This review intends to summarize the natural compounds targeting ferroptosis in liver cancer to offer new therapeutic ideas for liver cancer. Furthermore, it serves as the foundation for identifying and applying chemical medicines and natural chemicals that target ferroptosis to treat liver cancer efficiently.

Taurine attenuates activation of hepatic stellate cells by inhibiting autophagy and inducing ferroptosis

BACKGROUND

Liver fibrosis is a compensatory response during the tissue repair process in chronic liver injury, and finally leads to liver cirrhosis or even hepatocellular carcinoma. The pathogenesis of hepatic fibrosis is associated with the progressive accumulation of activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), which can transdifferentiate into myofibroblasts to produce an excess of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Myofibroblasts are the main source of the excessive ECM responsible for hepatic fibrosis. Therefore, activated hepatic stellate cells (aHSCs), the principal ECM producing cells in the injured liver, are a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of hepatic fibrosis.

AIM

To explore the effect of taurine on aHSC proliferation and the mechanisms involved.

METHODS

Human HSCs (LX-2) were randomly divided into five groups: Normal control group, platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) (20 ng/mL) treated group, and low, medium, and high dosage of taurine (10 mmol/L, 50 mmol/L, and 100 mmol/L, respectively) with PDGF-BB (20 ng/mL) treated group. Cell Counting Kit-8 method was performed to evaluate the effect of taurine on the viability of aHSCs. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to estimate the effect of taurine on the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde, glutathione, and iron concentration. Transmission electron microscopy was applied to observe the effect of taurine on the autophagosomes and ferroptosis features in aHSCs. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis were performed to detect the effect of taurine on the expression of α-SMA, Collagen I, Fibronectin 1, LC3B, ATG5, Beclin 1, PTGS2, SLC7A11, and p62.

RESULTS

Taurine promoted the death of aHSCs and reduced the deposition of the ECM. Treatment with taurine could alleviate autophagy in HSCs to inhibit their activation, by decreasing autophagosome formation, downregulating LC3B and Beclin 1 protein expression, and upregulating p62 protein expression. Meanwhile, treatment with taurine triggered ferroptosis and ferritinophagy to eliminate aHSCs characterized by iron overload, lipid ROS accumulation, glutathione depletion, and lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, bioinformatics analysis demonstrated that taurine had a direct targeting effect on nuclear receptor coactivator 4, exhibiting the best average binding affinity of -20.99 kcal/mol.

CONCLUSION

Taurine exerts therapeutic effects on liver fibrosis via mechanisms that involve inhibition of autophagy and trigger of ferroptosis and ferritinophagy in HSCs to eliminate aHSCs.

Emerging trends of phytochemicals as ferroptosis modulators in cancer therapy

Ferroptosis, a novel form of regulated cell death characterized by dependence on iron and lipid peroxidation, has been implicated in a wide range of clinical conditions including neurological diseases, cardiovascular disorders, acute kidney failure, and various types of cancer. Therefore, it is critical to suppress cancer progression and proliferation. Ferroptosis can be triggered in cancer cells and some normal cells by synthetic substances, such as erastin, Ras-selective lethal small molecule-3, or clinical pharmaceuticals. Natural bioactive compounds are traditional drug discovery tools, and some have been therapeutically used as dietary additives or pharmaceutical agents against various malignancies. The fact that natural products have multiple targets and minimal side effects has led to notable advances in anticancer research. Research has indicated that ferroptosis can also be induced by natural compounds during cancer treatment. In this review, we focused on the most recent developments in emerging molecular processes and the significance of ferroptosis in cancer. To provide new perspectives on the future development of ferroptosis-related anticancer medications, we also provide a summary of the implications of natural phytochemicals in triggering ferroptosis through ROS production and ferritinophagy induction in a variety of malignancies.

Targeting autophagy drug discovery: Targets, indications and development trends

Autophagy plays a vital role in sustaining cellular homeostasis and its alterations have been implicated in the etiology of many diseases. Drugs development targeting autophagy began decades ago and hundreds of agents were developed, some of which are licensed for the clinical usage. However, no existing intervention specifically aimed at modulating autophagy is available. The obstacles that prevent drug developments come from the complexity of the actual impact of autophagy regulators in disease scenarios. With the development and application of new technologies, several promising categories of compounds for autophagy-based therapy have emerged in recent years. In this paper, the autophagy-targeted drugs based on their targets at various hierarchical sites of the autophagic signaling network, e.g., the upstream and downstream of the autophagosome and the autophagic components with enzyme activities are reviewed and analyzed respectively, with special attention paid to those at preclinical or clinical trials. The drugs tailored to specific autophagy alone and combination with drugs/adjuvant therapies widely used in clinical for various diseases treatments are also emphasized. The emerging drug design and development targeting selective autophagy receptors (SARs) and their related proteins, which would be expected to arrest or reverse the progression of disease in various cancers, inflammation, neurodegeneration, and metabolic disorders, are critically reviewed. And the challenges and perspective in clinically developing autophagy-targeted drugs and possible combinations with other medicine are considered in the review.

Ferroptosis: Potential opportunities for natural products in cancer therapy

Cancer cells often exhibit defects in the execution of cell death, resulting in poor clinical outcomes for patients with many cancer types. Ferroptosis is a newly discovered form of programmed cell death characterized by intracellular iron overload and lipid peroxidation in the cell membrane. Increasing evidence suggests that ferroptosis is closely associated with a wide variety of physiological and pathological processes, particularly in cancer. Notably, various bioactive natural products have been shown to induce the initiation and execution of ferroptosis in cancer cells, thereby exerting anticancer effects. In this review, we summarize the core regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis and the multifaceted roles of ferroptosis in cancer. Importantly, we focus on natural products that regulate ferroptosis in cancer cells, such as terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, steroids, quinones, and polysaccharides. The clinical efficacy, adverse effects, and drug-drug interactions of these natural products need to be evaluated in further high-quality studies to accelerate their application in cancer treatment.

Targeting ferroptosis and ferritinophagy: new targets for cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a leading factor driving mortality worldwide. Iron, an essential trace mineral, is important in numerous biological processes, and its role in CVDs has raised broad discussion for decades. Iron-mediated cell death, namely ferroptosis, has attracted much attention due to its critical role in cardiomyocyte damage and CVDs. Furthermore, ferritinophagy is the upstream mechanism that induces ferroptosis, and is closely related to CVDs. This review aims to delineate the processes and mechanisms of ferroptosis and ferritinophagy, and the regulatory pathways and molecular targets involved in ferritinophagy, and to determine their roles in CVDs. Furthermore, we discuss the possibility of targeting ferritinophagy-induced ferroptosis modulators for treating CVDs. Collectively, this review offers some new insights into the pathology of CVDs and identifies possible therapeutic targets.

Novel Insights on Ferroptosis Modulation as Potential Strategy for Cancer Treatment: When Nature Kills

Significance: The multifactorial nature of the mechanisms implicated in cancer development still represents a major issue for the success of established antitumor therapies. The discovery of ferroptosis, a novel form of programmed cell death distinct from apoptosis, along with the identification of the molecular pathways activated during its execution, has led to the uncovering of novel molecules characterized by ferroptosis-inducing properties. Recent advances: As of today, the ferroptosis-inducing properties of compounds derived from natural sources have been investigated and interesting findings have been reported both in vitro and in vivo. Critical Issues: Despite the efforts made so far, only a limited number of synthetic compounds have been identified as ferroptosis inducers, and their utilization is still limited to basic research. In this review, we analyzed the most important biochemical pathways involved in ferroptosis execution, with particular attention to the newest literature findings on canonical and non-canonical hallmarks, together with mechanisms of action of natural compounds identified as novel ferroptosis inducers. Compounds have been classified based on their chemical structure, and modulation of ferroptosis-related biochemical pathways has been reported. Future Directions: The outcomes herein collected represent a fascinating starting point from which to take hints for future drug discovery studies aimed at identifying ferroptosis-inducing natural compounds for anticancer therapies. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 40, 40-85.

Hypoxia Aggravates Neuron Ferroptosis in Early Brain Injury Following Subarachnoid Hemorrhage via NCOA4-Meditated Ferritinophagy

The occurrence of early brain injury (EBI) significantly contributes to the unfavorable prognosis observed in patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). During the process of EBI, a substantial quantity of iron permeates into the subarachnoid space and brain tissue, thereby raising concerns regarding its metabolism. To investigate the role and metabolic processes of excessive iron in neurons, we established both in vivo and in vitro models of SAH. We substantiated that ferritinophagy participates in iron metabolism disorders and promotes neuronal ferroptosis using an in vivo model, as detected by key proteins such as ferritin heavy chain 1, glutathione peroxidase 4, autophagy related 5, nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4), LC3B, and electron microscopy results. By interfering with NCOA4 expression in vitro and in vivo, we confirmed the pivotal role of elevated NCOA4 levels in ferritinophagy during EBI. Additionally, our in vitro experiments demonstrated that the addition of oxyhemoglobin alone did not result in a significant upregulation of NCOA4 expression. However, simultaneous addition of oxyhemoglobin and hypoxia exposure provoked a marked increase in NCOA4 expression and heightened ferritinophagy in HT22 cells. Using YC-1 to inhibit hypoxia signaling in in vitro and in vitro models effectively attenuated neuronal ferroptosis. Collectively, we found that the hypoxic microenvironment during the process of EBI exaggerates iron metabolism abnormalities, leading to poor prognoses in SAH. The findings also offer a novel and potentially effective foundation for the treatment of SAH, with the aim of alleviating hypoxia.

Schisandrin B promotes senescence of activated hepatic stellate cell via NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy

CONTEXT

Schisandrin B (Sch B), an active ingredient from Schisandrae chinensis (Turcz.) Baill. (Schisandraceae) Fructus, possesses diverse pharmacological activities including antitumor, anti-inflammation, and hepatoprotection.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effect of Sch B on activated HSCs senescence in hepatic fibrosis and the mechanisms implicated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ICR mice with CCl₄-induced hepatic fibrosis were supplemented with Sch B (40 mg/kg) for 30 d and LX2 cells were treated with Sch B (5, 10 and 20 μM) for 24 h. Cellular senescence was assessed by senescence-related indicators senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) activity and the expression of p16, p21, p53, γ-H2AX, H3K9me3, TERT, TRF1, and TRF2. Ferric ammonium citrate (FAC) and NCOA4 siRNA were used to evaluate the mechanisms underlying Sch B's regulation of cellular senescence.

RESULTS

Sch B (40 mg/kg) reduced serum levels of AST and ALT (53.2% and 63.6%), alleviated hepatic collagen deposition, and promoted activated HSCs senescence in mice. Treatment with Sch B (20 μM) decreased cell viability to 80.38 ± 4.87% and elevated SA-β-gal activity, with the levels of p16, p21 and p53 increased by 4.5-, 2.9-, and 3.5-fold and the levels of TERT, TRF1 and TRF2 decreased by 2.4-, 2.7-, and 2.6-fold in LX2 cells. FAC (400 μM) enhanced Sch B's effect mentioned above. NCOA4 siRNA weakened the effects of Sch B on iron deposition and HSCs senescence.

CONCLUSIONS

Sch B could ameliorate hepatic fibrosis through the promotion of activated HSCs senescence, which might be attributed to its induction of NCOA4-mediated ferritinophagy and subsequent iron overload.

New Perspectives on Circulating Ferritin: Its Role in Health and Disease

The diagnosis of iron disturbances usually includes the evaluation of serum parameters. Serum iron is assumed to be entirely bound to transferrin, and transferrin saturation-the ratio between the serum iron concentration and serum transferrin-usually reflects iron availability. Additionally, serum ferritin is commonly used as a surrogate of tissue iron levels. Low serum ferritin values are interpreted as a sign of iron deficiency, and high values are the main indicator of pathological iron overload. However, in situations of inflammation, serum ferritin levels may be very high, independently of tissue iron levels. This presents a particularly puzzling challenge for the clinician evaluating the overall iron status of the patient in the presence of an inflammatory condition. The increase in serum ferritin during inflammation is one of the enigmas regarding iron metabolism. Neither the origin, the mechanism of release, nor the effects of serum ferritin are known. The use of serum ferritin as a biomarker of disease has been rising, and it has become increasingly diverse, but whether or not it contributes to controlling the disease or host pathology, and how it would do it, are important, open questions. These will be discussed here, where we spotlight circulating ferritin and revise the recent clinical and preclinical data regarding its role in health and disease.

Characterization of the Chemopreventive Properties of Cannabis sativa L. Inflorescences from Monoecious Cultivars Grown in Central Italy

Hemp bioproducts hold great promise as valuable materials for nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications due to their diverse bioactive compounds and potential health benefits. In line with this interest and in an attempt to valorize the Lazio Region crops, this present study investigated chemically characterized hydroalcoholic and organic extracts, obtained from the inflorescences of locally cultivated Felina 32, USO 31, Ferimon and Fedora 17 hemp varieties. In order to highlight the possible chemopreventive power of the tested samples, a bioactivity screening was performed, which included studying the antimutagenic activity, radical scavenging power, cytotoxicity in human hepatoma HepG2 cells, leakage of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and modulation of the oxidative stress parameters and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PDH) involved in the regulation of the cell transformation and cancer proliferation. Tolerability studies in noncancerous H69 cholangiocytes were performed, too. The organic extracts showed moderate to strong antimutagenic activities and a marked cytotoxicity in the HepG2 cells, associated with an increased oxidative stress and LDH release, and to a G6PDH modulation. The hydroalcoholic extracts mainly exhibited radical scavenging properties with weak or null activities in the other assays. The extracts were usually well-tolerated in H69 cells, except for the highest concentrations which impaired cell viability, likely due to an increased oxidative stress. The obtained results suggest a possibility in the inflorescences from the Felina 32, USO 31, Ferimon and Fedora 17 hemp varieties as source of bioactive compounds endowed with genoprotective and chemopreventive properties that could be harnessed as preventive or adjuvant healing strategies.

The induction of ferroptosis by KLF11/NCOA4 axis: the inhibitory role in clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Ferroptosis is a form of cell death and has great potential application in the treatment of many cancers, including clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC). Herein, we identified the essential roles of Krüppel-like factor 11 (KLF11) in suppressing the progression of ccRCC. By analyzing mRNA expression data from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database, we found that KLF11 was a significantly downregulated gene in ccRCC tissues. The results of subsequent functional assays verified that KLF11 played an antiproliferative role in ccRCC cells and xenograft tumors. Furthermore, gene set enrichment analysis indicated that ferroptosis was involved in ccRCC development, and correlation analysis revealed that KLF11 was positively related to ferroptosis drivers. We also found that KLF11 promoted ferroptosis in ccRCC by downregulating the protein expression of ferritin, system xc (-) cystine/glutamate antiporter (xCT), and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), acting as the inhibitory factors of ferroptosis and increasing the intracellular levels of lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS). As a transcriptional regulator, KLF11 significantly increased the promoter activity of nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4), a gene significantly downregulated in ccRCC and whose low expression is associated with poor survival. The characteristics of ccRCC cells caused by KLF11 overexpression were reversed after NCOA4 silencing. In summary, the present study suggests that KLF11 suppresses the progression of ccRCC by increasing NCOA4 transcription. Therefore, the KLF11/NCOA4 axis may serve as a novel therapeutic target for human ccRCC.

Autophagy: Regulator of cell death

Autophagy is the process by which cells degrade and recycle proteins and organelles to maintain intracellular homeostasis. Generally, autophagy plays a protective role in cells, but disruption of autophagy mechanisms or excessive autophagic flux usually leads to cell death. Despite recent progress in the study of the regulation and underlying molecular mechanisms of autophagy, numerous questions remain to be answered. How does autophagy regulate cell death? What are the fine-tuned regulatory mechanisms underlying autophagy-dependent cell death (ADCD) and autophagy-mediated cell death (AMCD)? In this article, we highlight the different roles of autophagy in cell death and discuss six of the main autophagy-related cell death modalities, with a focus on the metabolic changes caused by excessive endoplasmic reticulum-phagy (ER-phagy)-induced cell death and the role of mitophagy in autophagy-mediated ferroptosis. Finally, we discuss autophagy enhancement in the treatment of diseases and offer a new perspective based on the use of autophagy for different functional conversions (including the conversion of autophagy and that of different autophagy-mediated cell death modalities) for the clinical treatment of tumors.

Chemical Composition, In Vitro Antitumor Effect, and Toxicity in Zebrafish of the Essential Oil from Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist (Asteraceae)

The essential oil from Conyza bonariensis (Asteraceae) aerial parts (CBEO) was extracted by hydrodistillation in a Clevenger-type apparatus and was characterized by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The antitumor potential was evaluated against human tumor cell lines (melanoma, cervical, colorectal, and leukemias), as well as non-tumor keratinocyte lines using the MTT assay. The effect of CBEO on the production of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) was evaluated by DCFH-DA assay, and a protection assay using the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) was also performed. Moreover, the CBEO toxicity in the zebrafish model was assessed. The majority of the CBEO compound was (Z)-2-lachnophyllum ester (57.24%). The CBEO exhibited selectivity towards SK-MEL-28 melanoma cells (half maximal inhibitory concentration, IC50 = 18.65 ± 1.16 µg/mL), and induced a significant increase in ROS production. In addition, the CBEO's cytotoxicity against SK-MEL-28 cells was reduced after pretreatment with NAC. Furthermore, after 96 h of exposure, 1.5 µg/mL CBEO induced death of all zebrafish embryos. Non-lethal effects were observed after exposure to 0.50-1.25 µg/mL CBEO. Additionally, significant alterations in the activity of enzymes associated with oxidative stress in zebrafish larvae were observed. These results provide evidence that CBEO has a significant in vitro antimelanoma effect by increasing ROS production and moderate embryotoxicity in zebrafish.

Targeting Nrf2 for ferroptosis-based therapy: Implications for overcoming ferroptosis evasion and therapy resistance in cancer

Ferroptosis is a newly discovered form of programmed cell death caused by redox-active iron-mediated lipid peroxidation. Ferroptosis exhibits a unique morphological phenotype resulting from oxidative damage to membrane lipids. Ferroptosis induction has been shown to be effective in treating human cancers that rely on lipid peroxidation repair pathways. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) can control the regulatory pathways of ferroptosis, which involve genes associated with glutathione biosynthesis, antioxidant responses, and lipid and iron metabolism. Resistant cancer cells often utilize Nrf2 stabilization by Keap1 inactivation or other somatic alterations in the genes from the Nrf2 pathway, which can confer resistance to ferroptosis induction and other therapies. However, pharmacological inactivation of the Nrf2 pathway can sensitize cancer cells to ferroptosis induction. Inducing lipid peroxidation and ferroptosis through regulating the Nrf2 pathway is a promising strategy for enhancing the anticancer effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy in therapy-resistant human cancers. Despite promising preliminary studies, clinical trials in human cancer therapy have not yet been realized. A deeper understanding of their exact processes and efficacies in various cancers remains unsolved. Therefore, this article aims to summarize the regulatory mechanisms of ferroptosis, their modulation by Nrf2, and the potential of targeting Nrf2 for ferroptosis-based cancer therapy.

Ferritinophagy-mediated iron competition in RUTIs: Tug-of-war between UPEC and host

Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is the main pathogen of recurrent urinary tract infections (RUTIs). Urinary tract infection is a complicated interaction between UPEC and the host. During infection, UPEC can evade the host's immune response and retain in bladder epithelial cells, which requires adequate nutritional support. Iron is the first necessary trace element in life and a key nutritional factor, making it an important part of the competition between UPEC and the host. On the one hand, UPEC grabs iron to satisfy its reproduction, on the other hand, the host relies on iron to build nutritional immunity defenses against UPEC. Ferritinophagy is a selective autophagy of ferritin mediated by nuclear receptor coactivator 4, which is not only a way for the host to regulate iron metabolism to maintain iron homeostasis, but also a key point of competition between the host and UPEC. Although recent studies have confirmed the role of ferritinophagy in the progression of many diseases, the mechanism of potential interactions between ferritinophagy in UPEC and the host is poorly understood. In this paper, we reviewed the potential mechanisms of ferritinophagy-mediated iron competition in the UPEC-host interactions. This competitive relationship, like a tug-of-war, is a confrontation between the capability of UPEC to capture iron and the host's nutritional immunity defense, which could be the trigger for RUTIs. Therefore, understanding ferritinophagy-mediated iron competition may provide new strategies for exploring effective antibiotic alternative therapies to prevent and treat RUTIs.

Ferritinophagy in the etiopathogenic mechanism of related diseases

Iron is an essential trace element that is involved in a variety of physiological processes. Ferritinophagy is selective autophagy mediated by nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4), which regulates iron homeostasis in the body. Upon iron depletion or starvation, ferritinophagy is activated, releasing large amounts of Fe²⁺ and increasing reactive oxygen species (ROS), leading to ferroptosis. This plays a significant role in the etiopathogenesis of many diseases, such as metabolic diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, infectious diseases, tumors, cardiomyopathy, and ischemia-reperfusion ischemia-reperfusion injury. Here, we first review the regulation and functions of ferritinophagy and then describe its involvement in different diseases, with hopes of providing new understanding and insights into iron metabolism and iron disorder-related diseases and the therapeutic opportunity for targeting ferritinophagy.

Licochalcone A Induces Ferroptosis in Hepatocellular Carcinoma via Reactive Oxygen Species Activated by the SLC7A11/GPX4 Pathway

Liver cancer is a common malignant tumor, and its incidence is increasing yearly. Millions of people suffer from liver cancer annually, which has a serious impact on global public health security. Licochalcone A (Lico A), an important component of the traditional Chinese herb licorice, is a natural small molecule drug with multiple pharmacological activities. In this study, we evaluated the inhibitory effects of Lico A on hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines (HepG2 and Huh-7), and explored the inhibitory mechanism of Lico A on hepatocellular carcinoma. First, we evaluated the inhibitory effects of Lico A on hepatocellular carcinoma, and showed that Lico A significantly inhibited and killed HepG2 and Huh-7 cells in vivo and in vitro. Transcriptomic analysis showed that Lico A inhibited the expression of solute carrier family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11), which induced ferroptosis. We confirmed through in vivo and in vitro experiments that Lico A promoted ferroptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by downregulating SLC7A11 expression, thereby inhibiting the glutathione (GSH)-glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) pathway and inducing activation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this study, we suggest that Lico A is a potential SLC7A11 inhibitor that induces ferroptotic death in hepatocellular carcinoma cells, thereby providing a theoretical basis for the development of natural small molecule drugs against hepatocellular carcinoma.

Curcumol alleviates liver fibrosis through inducing autophagy and ferroptosis in hepatic stellate cells

To explore the effect of curcumol on autophagy and ferroptosis of hepatic stellate cells, and to clarify the molecular mechanism of its anti-hepatic fibrosis. In the present study, we report that curcumol promotes the death of activated HSCs and reduces the deposition of extracellular matrix. Interestingly, curcumol treatment can trigger ferroptosis to eliminate activated HSCs characterized by iron overload, lipid ROS accumulation, glutathione depletion, and lipid peroxidation. Curcumol promotes HSC autophagy, which may be the key mechanism for its induction of ferroptosis. It is worth noting that the upregulation of nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4) may play a key molecular mechanism. NCOA4 mediates the release of iron ions and induces the occurrence of ferroptosis. Overall, curcumol promotes autophagy in hepatic stellate cells, mediates the degradation of NCOA4 and FTH1 complexes, releases iron ions, leads to iron overload, and induces ferroptosis, which may be an important mechanism for its anti-hepatic fibrosis effect.

Quality Control of Oleum Cinnamomi Assisted by Network Pharmacology Strategy

Oleum Cinnamomi is a traditional medicine used by the Hmong, the essential oil obtained from Fructus Cinnamomi, for the treatment of coronary heart disease. Information regarding the efficient quality control markers of it is lacking, which has become a bottleneck restricting its development and utilization. Here, an integrated qualitative analysis approach based on a GC-MS and network pharmacology strategy was applied to explore quality control markers for the assessment of Oleum Cinnamomi. Firstly, the compounds of Oleum Cinnamomi were detected by GC-MS. In total, 57 chemical components were identified, mainly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, accounting for 83.05% of total essential oil components. Secondly, network pharmacology was adopted to explore the compounds linked to target genes of coronary heart disease. Fifty-two compounds were found, indicating the effectiveness of Oleum Cinnamomi in the treatment of coronary heart disease. Among them, 10 compounds, including eucalyptol, were chosen as potential effective compounds in Oleum Cinnamomi. Thirdly, an established GC-MS SIM method was validated and applied for the simultaneous determination of the contents of these 10 compounds using 20 sample batches of Oleum Cinnamomi. It was preliminarily found that the contents of these 10 compounds differed in Oleum Cinnamomi from different origins. Finally, quantitative analyte data were analyzed using multivariate statistical analysis to determine Oleum Cinnamomi quality. Four compounds (eucalyptol, p-cymene, sabinene, β-pinene) were identified as chemical markers for quality control. Accordingly, this study provides new strategies to explore the quality control markers and develops a novel method for the quality assessment of Oleum Cinnamomi.