The Developmental Origins of the Social Brain: Empathy, Morality, and Justice

The Impact of Negative Moral Character on Health and the Role of Spirituality: A Narrative Literature Review

Although negative moral character is highly prevalent, it is not included in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD). Along with the modification of WHO ICD-11, spirituality should be acknowledged for its potetnial role in the prevention of negative moral traits. This study aimed to explore the effects of negative moral character on health and determine the role of spirituality in improving negative moral traits. This narrative literature review was conducted from 2020 to 2023 in Kabul, Afghanistan. The articles were obtained from the Web of Science, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases. As demonstrated in this narrative literature review, most of the relevant experimental and observational studies have found that negative moral character can have significant negative impact on overall health and well-being. Many studies have established the positive role of spirituality in improving negative moral character. These studies concluded that facilities must be available within schools, universities, and communities for everyone to gain knowledge of spirituality and improve their negative moral character. Considering the adverse impacts of negative moral character on health, the current study proposes the addition of moral disorder to the WHO International Classification of Diseases. According to this literature review, spirituality will improve negative moral character and strengthen excellent moral traits.

Astrocytes in Pain Perception: A Systems Neuroscience Approach

Astrocytes play an active role in the function of the brain integrating neuronal activity and regulating back neuronal dynamic. They have recently emerged as active contributors of brain's emergent properties such as perceptions. Here, we analyzed the role of astrocytes in pain perception from the lens of systems neuroscience, and we do this by analyzing how astrocytes encode nociceptive information within brain processing areas and how they are key regulators of the internal state that determines pain perception. Specifically, we discuss the dynamic interactions between astrocytes and neuromodulators, such as noradrenaline, highlighting their role in shaping the level of activation of the neuronal ensemble, thereby influencing the experience of pain. Also, we will discuss the possible implications of an "Astro-NeuroMatrix" in the integration of pain across sensory, affective, and cognitive dimensions of pain perception.

Increased levels of autistic traits are associated with atypical moral judgments

Despite evidence often showing differences between groups with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and neurotypical controls in moral judgment, the precise nature of these differences has been difficult to establish. At least two reasons for this are (1) that ASD (and its associated characteristics) is difficult to define and (2) that morality, and the inclinations that undergird it, are hard to measure empirically. These challenges have made conclusive associations between ASD and particular patterns of moral judgment hard to come by. Thus, in the current study, participants levels of a traits associated with ASD were assessed by their responses to a questionnaire (i.e., the Iowa Screener) before they made moral judgments across a set of 20 moral dilemmas that independently assess utilitarian and deontological processing. Interestingly, results indicated that increased levels of autistic traits were associated with fewer moral judgments corresponding to either moral theory; that is, higher levels of autistic traits were associated with atypical patterns of moral judgment. In addition, and consistent with some prior methods (e.g., Gaeth et al., 2016), participant scores on the Iowa Screener, as well as their self-identification, were used to categorize participants between two groups (i.e., ASD and Typical) for exploratory purposes. Taken together, this research better informs the relationship between ASD and its associated traits with moral judgment and can inform certain discrepant findings in the field. Implications and ideas for future research are discussed, such as whether traits associated with ASD might relate to alternative moral inclinations, beyond deontology and utilitarianism.

Self and Others: Empirical and Neuropsychoanalytic Considerations of Superego and Conscience

Freud's mature theorizing about human morality entrenched the functioning of the superego in anxiety stemming from the fear of punishment, a view with which many later psychoanalysts took issue, producing a debate as to the distinction between superego and conscience. This debate would later be mirrored more broadly in academic psychology concerning distinctions between shame and guilt. This is an area where the clinical observations and theoretical discussions of psychoanalysis have subtly guided research in cognitive psychology and the cognitive and affective neurosciences. These areas, in turn, have both clarified and supported psychoanalytic theory and practice without negating the rich phenomenological and theoretical basis on which psychoanalysis rests.

Mismatch Negativity is associated with affective social behavior in microcephaly

Some children with severe microcephaly related to Zika virus infection show affective social-like behavior, such as smiling and rejection to a stranger's lap. Our objective was to check the association between this behavior and the occurrence of Mismatch Response (MMR) in event-related potentials. Twenty eight microcephalic children, aged 1-3 years, were divided in Affect(+) and Affect(-) groups, according to either the presence or absence of affective social-like behavior, respectively, and underwent the OddBall paradigm with vowels as auditory stimuli. MMR was statistically estimated comparing MMR sample means between both groups. The Affect(+) group significantly differed from the Affect(-) group and, as opposed to the latter, showed MMR as Mismatch Negativity (MMN) in the left occipital, left and right posterior temporal, and (especially) the right and median parietal leads. The relationship observed between MMN and affective social-like behavior suggests that these children may have cognitive mechanisms capable of providing some social interaction, despite their profound neurological dysfunction. MMN diagnostic techniques seem to be promising for the triage of microcephalic subjects regarding cognitive functions and for choosing a strategy for some social adaptation.

Having Heart: Affective and Cognitive Empathy Scores vs. Residency Specialty Match at an Osteopathic Medical School

BACKGROUND

Past studies examining the cognitive empathy of medical school graduates grouped the various residency selections vs. parsing them out. This study examines both affective and cognitive empathy scores of osteopathic medical school graduates entering eleven different residency specialties.

METHODS

Participants from the Campbell University Jerry M. Wallace School of Osteopathic Medicine (CUSOM) classes of 2017-2019 completed the Balanced Emotional Empathy Scale (BEES; measuring affective empathy) and the Jefferson Scale of Empathy, Student version (JSE-S; measuring cognitive empathy). Empathy scores were compared to residency choice upon graduation. The specialty choices were broken into two groups: Core specialties (i.e., people-oriented) that include Family Medicine, Internal Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology (OB/Gyn), Pediatrics, and Psychiatry. The remaining specialties are considered Non-Core specialties (i.e., technical/procedure-oriented) and included Anesthesiology, Diagnostic Radiology, Emergency Medicine, General Surgery, Neurology, and Orthopedics. Results are compared to data from the nationwide Project in Osteopathic Medical Education and Empathy (POMEE).

RESULTS

Women graduates tended to have larger BEES and JSE-S scores than men. Affective empathy scores were the largest for students selecting Core specialties. Four of these Core specialties were in the top four positions out of the eleven specialties selected by eight or more graduates. None of the eleven specialties was ranked higher than the 50th percentile compared to BEES score norms. Cognitive empathy scores were also the largest for students selecting Core specialties. All five of the Core specialties were in the top six positions out of the eleven specialties. None of the eleven specialties ranked greater than the 39th percentile when compared to OMS-III and OMS-IV POMEE data. Only women entering Psychiatry had a JSE-S score that was greater than the 50th percentile.

CONCLUSIONS

Osteopathic graduates selecting the five Core specialties have BEES and JSE-S scores that are, usually, larger than students entering Non-Core specialties. For either survey instrument, both Pediatrics and Family Medicine were first and second out of a possible 11 positions, respectively. Most CUSOM graduates had JSE-S scores lower than their peers in other osteopathic medical schools that participated in the POMEE study. When the CUSOM data are compared to allopathic data, there is no clear evidence that osteopathic students have substantially higher affective or cognitive empathy scores than their allopathic peers. Therefore, it appears that medical students who select osteopathy for its tenant of a more holistic approach to patient care are no more empathetic than students studying allopathic medicine. Several suggestions are made on how to potentially increase student empathy during undergraduate medical education.

Comparative connectomics of the primate social brain

Social interaction is thought to provide a selection pressure for human intelligence, yet little is known about its neurobiological basis and evolution throughout the primate lineage. Recent advances in neuroimaging have enabled whole brain investigation of brain structure, function, and connectivity in humans and non-human primates (NHPs), leading to a nascent field of comparative connectomics. However, linking social behavior to brain organization across the primates remains challenging. Here, we review the current understanding of the macroscale neural mechanisms of social behaviors from the viewpoint of system neuroscience. We first demonstrate an association between the number of cortical neurons and the size of social groups across primates, suggesting a link between neural information-processing capacity and social capabilities. Moreover, by capitalizing on recent advances in species-harmonized functional MRI, we demonstrate that portions of the mirror neuron system and default-mode networks, which are thought to be important for representation of the other's actions and sense of self, respectively, exhibit similarities in functional organization in macaque monkeys and humans, suggesting possible homologies. With respect to these two networks, we describe recent developments in the neurobiology of social perception, joint attention, personality and social complexity. Together, the Human Connectome Project (HCP)-style comparative neuroimaging, hyperscanning, behavioral, and other multi-modal investigations are expected to yield important insights into the evolutionary foundations of human social behavior.

On Neuroeducation: Why and How to Improve Neuroscientific Literacy in Educational Professionals

New findings from the neurosciences receive much interest for use in the applied field of education. For the past 15 years, neuroeducation and the application of neuroscience knowledge were seen to have promise, but there is presently some lack of progress. The present paper states that this is due to several factors. Neuromyths are still prevalent, and there is a confusion of tongues between the many neurodisciplines and the domains of behavioral and educational sciences. Second, a focus upon cognitive neuroimaging research has yielded findings that are scientifically relevant, but cannot be used for direct application in the classroom. A third factor pertains to the emphasis which has been on didactics and teaching, whereas the promise of neuroeducation for the teacher may lie more on pedagogical inspiration and support. This article states that the most important knowledge and insights have to do with the notion of brain plasticity; the vision that development is driven by an interaction between a person's biology and the social system. This helps individuals to select and process information, and to adapt to the personal environment. The paper describes how brain maturation and neuropsychological development extend through the important period of adolescence and emergent adulthood. Over this long period, there is a major development of the Executive Functions (EFs) that are essential for both cognitive learning, social behavior and emotional processing and, eventually, personal growth. The paper describes the basic neuroscience knowledge and insights - or "neuroscientific literacy" - that the educational professional should have to understand and appreciate the above-described themes. The authors formulate a proposal for four themes of neuroscience content "that every teacher should know." These four themes are based on the Neuroscience Core Concepts formulated by the Society for Neuroscience. The authors emphasize that integrating neuroscientific knowledge and insights in the field of education should not be a one-way street; attempts directed at improving neuroscientific literacy are a transdisciplinary undertaking. Teacher trainers, experts from the neuroscience fields but also behavioral scientists from applied fields (notable applied neuropsychologists) should all contribute to for the educational innovations needed.

Aggression, Moral Disengagement and Empathy. A Longitudinal Study Within the Interpersonal Dynamics of Bullying

Moral disengagement and empathy have been linked to aggression in traditional bullying. A number of longitudinal studies have focused on how these variables predict aggressive behavior within the dynamics of bullying. However, no conclusive results have been produced as to whether aggressive behavior in bullying can predict lower levels of empathy, and to date, no studies have explored in depth the mediating role of moral disengagement strategies in this relationship, which is the aim of this study. A total of 1,810 students (51.0% girls; M_age = 14.50; SD = 1.05) completed a survey in three waves at 6-month intervals. The results showed that aggressive behavior in bullying at Time 1 was inversely related to affective and cognitive empathy at Time 3. Minimization of responsibility, distortion of consequences and dehumanizing mediated in the aggressive behavior exhibited by the bullying aggressors and in cognitive empathy, while cognitive restructuring and the distortion of consequences mediated in affective empathy. We discuss the impact on moral and emotional sensitivity of the continued aggression occurring in the interpersonal dynamics of bullying, as well as the relationship between certain strategies of moral disengagement and the different types of empathy. We also comment on the need to design intervention programs to address the lowering of moral criteria and empathy in young people and adolescents involved in traditional bullying.

Connecting inside out: Development of the social brain in infants and toddlers with a focus on myelination as a marker of brain maturation

Early childhood is a sensitive period for learning and social skill development. The maturation of cerebral regions underlying social processing lays the foundation for later social‐emotional competence. This study explored myelin changes in social brain regions and their association with changes in parent‐rated social‐emotional development in a cohort of 129 children (64 females, 0–36 months, 77 White). Results reveal a steep increase in myelination throughout the social brain in the first 3 years of life that is significantly associated with social‐emotional development scores. These findings add knowledge to the emerging picture of social brain development by describing neural underpinnings of human social behavior. They can contribute to identifying age‐/stage‐appropriate early life factors in this developmental domain.

Do Belonging and Social Exclusion at School Affect Structural Brain Development During Adolescence?

Students' sense of belonging presents an essential resource for academic and health outcomes, whereas social exclusion at school negatively impacts students' well-being and academic performance. Aiming to understand how feelings of school-related belonging and exclusion shape the structural brain development, this study applied longitudinal questionnaire-based data and MRI data from 71 adolescent students (37 females, M_age at t1 = 15.0; t2 = 16.1 years). All were white participants from Germany. Voxel-based morphometry revealed only an association of social exclusion (and not of belonging) and gray matter volume in the left anterior insula: From t1 to t2, there was less gray matter decrease, the more social exclusion students perceived. School-related social exclusion and disturbed neurodevelopment are thus significantly associated.

When Implicit Prosociality Trumps Selfishness: The Neural Valuation System Underpins More Optimal Choices When Learning to Avoid Harm to Others Than to Oneself

Humans learn quickly which actions cause them harm. As social beings, we also need to learn to avoid actions that hurt others. It is currently unknown whether humans are as good at learning to avoid others' harm (prosocial learning) as they are at learning to avoid self-harm (self-relevant learning). Moreover, it remains unclear how the neural mechanisms of prosocial learning differ from those of self-relevant learning. In this fMRI study, 96 male human participants learned to avoid painful stimuli either for themselves or for another individual. We found that participants performed more optimally when learning for the other than for themselves. Computational modeling revealed that this could be explained by an increased sensitivity to subjective values of choice alternatives during prosocial learning. Increased value sensitivity was further associated with empathic traits. On the neural level, higher value sensitivity during prosocial learning was associated with stronger engagement of the ventromedial PFC during valuation. Moreover, the ventromedial PFC exhibited higher connectivity with the right temporoparietal junction during prosocial, compared with self-relevant, choices. Our results suggest that humans are particularly adept at learning to protect others from harm. This ability appears implemented by neural mechanisms overlapping with those supporting self-relevant learning, but with the additional recruitment of structures associated to the social brain. Our findings contrast with recent proposals that humans are egocentrically biased when learning to obtain monetary rewards for self or others. Prosocial tendencies may thus trump egocentric biases in learning when another person's physical integrity is at stake.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT We quickly learn to avoid actions that cause us harm. As "social animals," we also need to learn and consider the harmful consequences our actions might have for others. Here, we investigated how learning to protect others from pain (prosocial learning) differs from learning to protect oneself (self-relevant learning). We found that human participants performed better during prosocial learning than during self-relevant learning, as they were more sensitive toward the information they collected when making choices for the other. Prosocial learning recruited similar brain areas as self-relevant learning, but additionally involved parts of the "social brain" that underpin perspective-taking and self-other distinction. Our findings suggest that people show an inherent tendency toward "intuitive" prosociality.

The clinical assessment of acts of violence: mental mechanisms and subjectivity

Approaches to assessing violence in clinical practice have been influenced by developments in the field of risk assessment. As a result, there has been a focus on identifying and describing factors associated with violence. However, a factor-based approach to assessing violence in individual cases has limited clinical utility. In response, the benefits of a formulation-based approach have been promoted. This approach is enhanced by an understanding of the specific mental mechanisms that increase the likelihood of violence in the individual case. Although there is an empirical evidence base for mental mechanisms associated with violence, this literature has not been distilled and synthesised in a way that informs routine clinical practice. In this article the authors present the key mechanisms that are known to be associated with violence in a way that is relevant to the clinical assessment of violence and, in turn, can inform clinical and risk management.