Self-Compassion and Cultural Values: A Cross-Cultural Study of Self-Compassion Using a Multitrait-Multimethod (MTMM) Analytical Procedure

Exploring the Relationship Between Self-Compassion and Compassion for Others: The Role of Psychological Distress and Wellbeing

We addressed construct validity and explored the relationship between self-compassion and compassion for others using the two main current operationalizations of compassion (Neff's and the Sussex-Oxford Compassion Scales, SOCSs). Relationships with psychological distress and wellbeing, and potential differences in the association between self-compassion and compassion for others by level of psychological distress and wellbeing were also explored. Participants (n = 811) completed the Spanish adaptations of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), the Compassion Scale (CS), the SOCSs (for the self/others), the Short Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-Being Scale (SWEMWBS), and the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21 (DASS-21). We fitted bifactor models to estimate the general factor of each construct for the different operationalizations, and calculated correlations between them. Relationships between self-compassion and compassion for others from the same operationalization were intermediate, while those between the same constructs from different operationalizations were large. Both constructs showed positive associations with wellbeing, while only self-compassion was associated with decreased psychological distress. Participants with good mental health showed higher associations between self-compassion and compassion for others than those with poorer mental health. Self-compassion and compassion for others appear to be dimensional constructs that can converge or diverge. When they converge, it is associated with better mental health.

On the importance of being clear about the level of analysis of interest: An illustration using the case of self-compassion

OBJECTIVE

Theories about within-person (WP) variation are often tested using between-person (BP) research, despite the well-established fact that results may not generalize across levels of analysis. One possible explanation is vague theories that do not specify which level of analysis is of interest. We illustrate such a case using the construct of self-compassion. The factor structure at the BP level has been highly debated, although the theory is actually concerned with relationships at the WP level.

METHOD

Multilevel confirmatory factor analysis was applied to experience-sampling data of self-compassion (N = 213, with n = 4052 measurement occasions).

RESULTS

At both levels of analysis, evidence for a two-factor model was found. However, the factors were moderately related at the WP level (r = 0.37, p < 0.001) but largely independent at the BP level (r = 0.04, p = 0.696). Exploratory analyses revealed considerable heterogeneity in the WP relationship among individuals.

CONCLUSION

We discuss how our results provide new impulses to move the debate around self-compassion forward. Lastly, we outline how the WP level-which is of major interest for self-compassion and other constructs in psychology-can guide the conceptualization and assessment to promote advancements of the theory and resulting applications.

Addressing Burnout in the Primary Care Setting: The Impact of an Evidence-Based Mindfulness Toolkit

BACKGROUND

Burnout is insidious and manifests over prolonged, repeated exposure to occupational stressors. There is a growing crisis among health care workers (HCWs) due to high levels of burnout and associated adverse outcomes. Identifying and addressing burnout can be problematic due to extensive variances of perceived occupational stressors across HCWs.

PURPOSE

Mindfulness-based training can enhance individual HCWs' abilities to perceive and constructively respond to stresses endemic in the health care environment. It can reduce the prevalence of burnout in the primary care setting. An evidence-based multimodal Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction toolkit (MBSR TK) was designed, implemented, and evaluated for its impact on HCWs' self-reported stress levels (SRSL).

IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES

A pre-post-program evaluation explored the impact of a multimodal toolkit program on HCW SRSL with the Mini-Z burnout survey (MZBS). The MBSR TK program, consisting of a 45 minute introduction and 4 biweekly 15 minute mindfulness sessions offering acupressure, meditation, journaling for gratitude, and self-compassion was designed, delivered, and evaluated with HCWs across 2 military primary care clinics in South Texas.

RESULTS

All HCWs across 2 Air Force family practice clinics were invited to participate in all toolkit components. Seventy percent of all HCWs (N = 90) attended the introduction session. Thirty-seven (41%) HCWs completed pre and post MZBSs, and these responses are included in the data analysis section. The most represented HCWs were registered nurses, physician assistants, and technicians, respectively, at 24%, 21%, and 18%. The Wilcoxon Signed-Rank test examined changes in HCWs' SRSL after participation in the MBSR TK program. HCWs who attended the introduction plus one biweekly session showed statistically significant decreases in self-reported stress (P = 0.018) and burnout (P = 0.045) and a significant increase in electronic health record proficiency (P = 0.033).

CONCLUSIONS

Multimodal mindfulness toolkits to address SRSL burnout are practical, accessible, easily implemented, adaptive to any environment, and can decrease burnout with participation with just one 15 minute session. This MBSR TK implementation effectively lowered self-reported stress in HCWs who are repeatedly challenged to adapt to various settings around the world during peacetime, wars, natural disasters, humanitarian crises, and now, pandemics.

Clinical and Psychosocial Predictors of Post-Event Processing in Adults Who Stutter

PURPOSE

Post-event processing, defined by self-critical rumination following a stressful communication event, is significantly associated with reduced quality of life. However, despite its relevance to the stuttering experience, to date, only a few studies have investigated post-event processing among adults who stutter, and no study has identified clinical and psychosocial predictors of post-event processing. The purpose of this study was to determine the contributions of clinical markers of stuttering and psychosocial variables to post-event processing.

METHOD

Adults who stutter (N = 96) participated in two virtual sessions. After completing the Trier Social Stress Test, a standardized social stress task in Session 1, participants completed measures of post-event processing, clinical markers of stuttering (i.e., the experience of stuttering, self- and observer-rated stuttering severity), and psychosocial characteristics (i.e., self-perceived performance, self-esteem, social anxiety, trait, and state self-compassion) in Session 2.

RESULTS

Hierarchical linear regression models indicated that a more negative experience of stuttering, higher self-rated stuttering severity, and greater social anxiety predicted more post-event processing. Greater self-perceived performance and state self-compassion predicted less rumination. Observer-rated severity, self-esteem, and trait self-compassion were not significantly associated with post-event processing behavior.

CONCLUSION

Findings reveal clinical and psychosocial variables to consider in the assessment and mitigation of post-event processing behavior in adults who stutter, and to bolster resiliency to social stress.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL

https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.24223213.

Self-Compassion in Chinese Young Adults: Its Measurement and Measurement Construct

OBJECTIVES

Self-compassion is the ability to be kind to oneself in adversity. This multidimensional construct is typically assessed by the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS). In Chinese samples, there have been inconsistent psychometric findings that impede cross-cultural research. This study aimed to explore the factor structure of the Chinese version (SCS-C).

METHODS

Two samples of young Chinese adults were recruited (Sample 1, N = 465, 141 men, Mean age [Mage] = 20.26; Sample 2, N = 392, 71 men; Mage = 18.97). Confirmatory factor analyses and exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) were used to examine previously reported four- and six-factor structures of SCS-C.

RESULTS

Although ESEM supported the six-factor structure when a problematic item was omitted, we found stronger evidence for a novel four-factor structure of the SCS-C revealed with self-kindness, common humanity, mindfulness, and uncompassionate self-responding. This suggests that Chinese individuals have a different understanding of the negative components of the original self-compassion definition, which was based on the United States and other mostly Western samples. Omega coefficients of the bifactor models suggested that using the SCS total score in Chinese samples is inappropriate. However, high factor determinacy and construct replicability indicated that the general factor of SCS-C could be used in a structural equation modeling context for both four-factor and six-factor structures.

CONCLUSIONS

When using the existing SCS-C in path models, researchers should use a latent variable approach and establish the measurement construct rather than sum scores of the scale or subscales without checking the factor structure in future empirical studies. Also, the SCS-C needs to be revised, and we proposed directions forward for future research.

A pilot study of an online self-compassion intervention for adults who stutter

PURPOSE

The primary aim of this pilot study was to determine the preliminary effectiveness of an online self-compassion intervention for improving self-compassion and quality of life in adults who stutter. A secondary aim was to determine intervention acceptability and participant satisfaction.

METHOD

Participants included adults who stutter who completed an online self-compassion module once a week for six consecutive weeks. Pre- and post-intervention measures included the Self-Compassion Scale-Trait and the Overall Assessment of the Speaker's Experience of Stuttering. Participants also completed acceptability questionnaires weekly and post-intervention via quantitative and qualitative reports.

RESULT

Ten participants completed all six intervention modules, as well as pre- and post-intervention measures. Participants reported increased self-compassion and improved quality of life at post-intervention, as well as high intervention acceptability with regard to delivery format, content, duration, and relevance to stuttering and daily life. Individual variation was also observed across acceptability domains.

CONCLUSION

The present study provides pilot data supporting the use of online modules to increase self-compassion and decrease the negative impact of stuttering on the quality of life among adults who stutter. Future studies should employ larger sample sizes, compare outcomes to a control group, and determine if gains are maintained over time.

Self-Compassion during COVID-19 in Non-WEIRD Countries: A Narrative Review

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic impacted people's mental health negatively worldwide, including in non-WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialised, Rich and Democratic) countries. Self-compassion, kindness and understanding towards oneself in difficult times have received increasing attention in the field of mental health. Self-compassion is strongly associated with good mental health in various populations. This narrative review aimed to synthesise the evidence on self-compassion and mental health in non-WEIRD countries during the COVID-19 pandemic. MEDLINE and PsycINFO were searched for empirical studies. Self-compassion was consistently associated with positive mental health in non-WEIRD countries too. However, how, and to what degree, each component of self-compassion impacts mental health remains to be evaluated across different cultures. Future research such as multi-national intervention studies, or component network meta-analysis, is needed to advance our understanding of how self-compassion improves mental health in different populations.

Self-Compassion Interventions to Target Secondary Traumatic Stress in Healthcare Workers: A Systematic Review

Healthcare professionals' wellbeing can be adversely affected by the intense demands of, and the secondary traumatic stress associated with, their job. Self-compassion is associated with positive wellbeing outcomes across a variety of workforce populations and is potentially an important skill for healthcare workers, as it offers a way of meeting one's own distress with kindness and understanding. This systematic review aimed to synthesise and evaluate the utility of self-compassion interventions in reducing secondary traumatic stress in a healthcare worker population. Eligible articles were identified from research databases, including ProQuest, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and EBSCO. The quality of non-randomised and randomised trials was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale. The literature search yielded 234 titles, from which 6 studies met the inclusion criteria. Four studies reported promising effects of self-compassion training for secondary traumatic stress in a healthcare population, although these did not use controls. The methodological quality of these studies was medium. This highlights a research gap in this area. Three of these four studies recruited workers from Western countries and one recruited from a non-Western country. The Professional Quality of Life Scale was used to evaluate secondary traumatic stress in all studies. The findings show preliminary evidence that self-compassion training may improve secondary traumatic stress in healthcare professional populations; however, there is a need for greater methodological quality in this field and controlled trials. The findings also show that the majority of research was conducted in Western countries. Future research should focus on a broader range of geographical locations to include non-Western countries.

Structural Inequities in Self-compassion and Parental Burnout

Objectives

When parenting-related stressors and coping resources are chronically imbalanced, there is risk of parental burnout, and consequent negative impact on parent and child wellbeing. The objective of this study was to determine the relations between structural and social determinants of health inequities, self-compassion (a theoretically indicated coping practice), and parental burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Method

Participants were parents (n = 2324) with at least one child aged 4-17 in the household recruited from NORC's AmeriSpeak Panel (a probability-based panel providing coverage of 97% of the US household population). Parents completed an online or telephone questionnaire in English or Spanish in December 2020. Structural equation modeling was used to test a system of relations between income, race and ethnicity, parental burnout, and parent and child mental health. Indirect effects and moderation by self-compassion were also tested.

Results

On average, parents experienced symptoms of burnout several days per week. Symptoms were the most frequent among parents with the least income, as well as female-identified and Asian parents. More self-compassion was associated with less parental burnout, and fewer parent and child mental health difficulties. Black and Hispanic parents were more self-compassionate compared to white parents, helping to explain similar levels of parental burnout and relatively better mental health outcomes, despite comparatively more stressors.

Conclusions

Self-compassion is a potentially promising target for interventions aiming to address parental burnout; however, such efforts must not detract from critical structural changes to reduce parenting stressors, particularly those impacting parents experiencing systemic racism and other forms of socioeconomic disadvantage.

Preregistration

This study is not preregistered.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12671-023-02104-9.

Effects of Childhood Maltreatment on Self-Compassion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

This systematic review aims to estimate the extent to which childhood maltreatment influences self-compassion in later life.

METHOD

Four English databases (Web of Science, PsycINFO, PubMed, and PsycARTICLES) and three Chinese databases (China National Knowledge Infrastructure, Wanfang, and Weipu) were systematically searched. We extracted data related to the associations between child maltreatment and self-compassion and pooled them using random effect models.

FINDINGS

A total of 20 eligible studies were included involving 6,877 participants in the analyses. Overall child maltreatment was negatively related to self-compassion (r = -.28, p < .001); emotional abuse and neglect were negatively related to self-compassion (r = -.28, p < .01; r = -.31, p < .01, respectively) at a moderate level; and physical abuse, sexual abuse, and physical neglect were negatively related to self-compassion (r = -.12, p < .01; r = -.10, p < .01; and r = -.22, p < .001, respectively) at a small level.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that overall and subtypes of maltreatment are associated with decreased self-compassion, and child intervention programs focused on self-compassion should be designed to protect the well-being of individuals with a history of childhood maltreatment.

The Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form: Psychometric evaluation in one non-clinical and two clinical Swedish samples

BACKGROUND

Self-compassion has been defined as the ability to be with one's feelings of suffering in a warm and caring way. Research has shown a negative association between self-compassion and mental illness, and that low self-compassion can make psychotherapeutic effects less likely. The ability to measure a patient's self-compassion in a fast and reliable way is therefore important in investigating effects of psychotherapies. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the Self-Compassion Scale-Short Form (SCS-SF) in both non-clinical (NC) and clinical samples.

METHODS

Cross-sectional data were gathered in a NC community sample (n = 1,089), an eating disorder (ED) sample (n = 253) and a borderline personality disorder (BPD) sample (n = 151). All participants were asked to complete a number of questionnaires, including the SCS-SF, and 121 participants in the NC sample repeated the assessment after 2 weeks for test-retest analysis.

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analyses supported the first-order model suggested in previous research. Good internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.78-0.87) and test-retest reliability (intra-class correlation = 0.84) were demonstrated for the entire scale. Results also showed good convergent validity, demonstrating moderate negative associations between self-compassion and mental illnesses, as expected, and acceptable divergent validity, demonstrating weak positive associations between self-compassion and quality of life and mindfulness.

DISCUSSION

The correlations between the SCS-SF and the instruments used for validation were weaker in the clinical samples than the NC sample. This may be due to difficulties measuring these constructs or that the associations differ somewhat between different populations, which could warrant further research. The results added some support to the assumption that self-compassion may overlap with mindfulness yet still represents a distinct construct.

CONCLUSIONS

Analyses of the SCS-SF provided evidence of adequate to good psychometric properties, supporting use of the scale's total sum score and a first-order factor structure. This is in accordance with previous evaluations of the SCS-SF, suggesting that it is a reliable and time-efficient instrument for measuring a general level of self-compassion. This may be important when evaluating psychotherapy and investigating self-compassion and its influence on psychiatric illness.

Mental Health of Japanese Workers: Amotivation Mediates Self-Compassion on Mental Health Problems

Workplace mental health is a cause for concern in many countries. Globally, 78% of the workforce experienced impairment of their mental health in 2020. In Japan, more than half of employees are mentally distressed. Previously, research has identified that self-compassion (i.e., being kind and understanding towards oneself) and work motivation were important to their mental health. However, how these three components relate to each other remains to be elucidated. Accordingly, this study aimed to examine the relationship between mental health problems, self-compassion and work motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation). A cross-sectional design was employed, where 165 Japanese workers completed self-report scales regarding those three components. A correlation and path analyses were conducted. Mental health problems were positively associated with amotivation and negatively associated with age and self-compassion. While intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation did not mediate the impact of self-compassion on mental health problems, amotivation did. The findings can help managers and organizational psychologists help identify effective approaches to improving work mental health.

Mental Wellbeing of Indonesian Students: Mean Comparison with UK Students and Relationships with Self-Compassion and Academic Engagement

The number of Indonesian students in higher education has been increasing rapidly. However, many Indonesian university students report experiencing mental distress. Research on student wellbeing found that self-compassion (i.e., being kind towards oneself in challenging times) and academic engagement (i.e., a commitment and purposeful effort toward study) are essential to students’ mental wellbeing. With the present study, we aimed to assess the mental wellbeing of Indonesian students. A convenience sample of 156 Indonesian students completed self-report measures on mental wellbeing, self-compassion and academic engagement (consisting of vigour, dedication and absorption). To contextualise their mental wellbeing, data from Indonesian students were compared with those from 145 UK students using Welch t-tests. Correlation, regression and mediation analyses were then performed to examine the relationships among these variables. Indonesian students had higher levels of self-compassion and absorption and a lower level of dedication than UK students. Self-compassion and academic engagement explained 36% of variance in mental wellbeing. Self-compassion and vigour were identified as significant predictors of mental wellbeing, whereas self-compassion was the strongest predictor. Lastly, vigour did not mediate the pathway from self-compassion to mental wellbeing. Interventions to support self-compassion and academic engagement, especially vigour, in Indonesian students are recommended to support their mental wellbeing.

The Self-Compassion Scale: Validation and Psychometric Properties within the Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling Framework

The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) is one of the several tools for measuring compassionate self-attitude. Despite its popularity, there is an ongoing controversy regarding its factor structure. Previous studies employing exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) found support for the single-bifactor (one general and six group factors) model over the competing two-bifactor (two general factors representing compassionate and uncompassionate self-responding and six group factors) model. Here, we replicated and extended previous ESEM studies through examining the validity and dimensionality of different bifactor models in a sample of UK adults. Model fit was examined across two estimators: maximum likelihood and weighted least square mean and variance adjusted. Finally, we investigated whether one or two observed scores of the SCS can better identify cases of depression, anxiety, and mental wellbeing. Both bifactor models showed good fit to the data irrespective of the estimators used, but only the single-bifactor model demonstrated satisfactory convergent and criterion validity and unidimensionality. The total observed SCS score detected depression, anxiety and high mental wellbeing with higher accuracy than any of the two scores. Overall, we propose to use the total score of the SCS in further research and practice.

The Correlation Between Self-Compassion and Life Satisfaction Varies Across Societal Individualism-Collectivism: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis

Self-compassion is positively correlated with life satisfaction. However, no previous work examined the cross-cultural difference regarding the effect size of this correlation. Using 79 independent samples ( N = 23,976) from 26 countries/regions, this three-level meta-analysis synthesized the effect sizes of their correlation, partitioned the between-study heterogeneity into the within- and between-country levels, and examined the moderating role of national culture according to the revised Minkov-Hofstede model. Results indicated that self-compassion was positively correlated with life satisfaction, with a moderate-to-large effect size (.40 ≤  r ≤ .47); 33.66% and 35.73% of the effect size variance could be attributed to the within-country and between-country heterogeneities; this correlation was stronger in samples collected from more individualistic societies. This study highlights that self-compassion may fit differently into different cultural realities and the importance of raising cultural awareness in future self-compassion research.

Mental Health of Czech University Psychology Students: Negative Mental Health Attitudes, Mental Health Shame and Self-Compassion

High rates of mental health problems are a growing concern in Czech higher education, negatively impacting students’ performance and wellbeing. Despite the serious nature of poor mental health, students often do not seek help because of negative attitudes and shame over mental health problems. Recent mental health research reports self-compassion is strongly associated with better mental health and reduced shame. However, relationships between those constructs remain to be evaluated among Czech students. This study aims to appraise the relationships between mental health problems, negative mental health attitudes, mental health shame, and self-compassion in this population. An opportunity sample of 119 psychology students from a Czech university completed questionnaires regarding these constructs. Correlation, regression, and path analyses were conducted. Mental health problems were positively associated with negative mental health attitudes and shame, and negatively associated with self-compassion. Self-compassion negatively predicted mental health problems, while negative attitudes and shame did not. Last, self-compassion fully mediated the negative attitudes-mental health problems relationship, and partially mediated the shame-mental health problems relationship. Findings suggest self-compassion is essential for mental health in Czech students and associated with negative mental health attitudes and mental health shame. Czech universities can benefit from incorporating self-compassion training into their curricula to protect students’ mental health.

Wellbeing in Workers during COVID-19 Pandemic: The Mediating Role of Self-Compassion in the Relationship between Personal Resources and Exhaustion

Italy was the second country to be affected by COVID-19 in early 2020, after China. The confrontation with the pandemic led to great changes in the world of work and, consequently, to the personal world of workers. In such a challenging situation, it is essential to be able to rely on resources that facilitate individual coping. The aim of this study was to understand the association between personal resources (optimism and humor) and exhaustion, and the role of self-compassion in this relationship. A structural equation model (SEM) was used to test the hypotheses on a heterogeneous sample of 422 Italian workers during the first lockdown in April–May 2020. The results revealed that optimism and humor were positively associated with self-compassion; optimism and humor also had a negative association with exhaustion; and self-compassion had a mediating role between the two personal resources and exhaustion. These results confirmed the importance of personal resources in maintaining workers’ wellbeing during a challenging period such as the pandemic. The present study also contributes to the body of knowledge on self-compassion, a relatively new construct that has been little studied in the organizational field.

A cross-cultural exploration of compassion, and facilitators and inhibitors of compassion in UK and Sri Lankan people

BACKGROUND

Practising compassion has shown to increase well-being and reduce distress in people across cultures. However, very little research has explored cultural differences in different facets of compassion with a dearth of research evident especially in the Asian context. Several inhibitors and facilitators of compassion have been identified although the nuances of cultural differences of these remain unexploited. This study aimed to discover cross-cultural similarities and differences of the levels of compassion, facilitators and inhibitors of compassion between Sri Lankan and UK people.

METHODS

A cross-sectional, questionnaire-based quantitative research was conducted among 149 Sri Lankan and 300 UK participants. Individual predictors (such as fears of compassion, self-reassurance, external shame, social safeness and pleasure, depression and anxiety) were also explored in relation to compassion, compassion to others, and compassion from others in each group.

RESULTS

The results indicated that Sri Lankan participants were more self-reassured and self-compassionate and self-identifying as a Buddhist predicted higher self-compassion, when compared to UK participants. However, Sri Lankan participants reported higher levels of external shame and fear of compassion not just towards themselves, but also towards and from others, indicating difficulty in engaging compassionately with others. In contrast, UK participants reported higher social safeness, indicating that they were more likely to feel safe and soothed by the society than the Sri Lankan participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Society plays a pivotal role in shaping one's experiences of compassion. This study suggests that specific cultural and social factors should be considered when implementing Western compassionate approaches to non-Western settings.

Views and experiences of compassion in Sri Lankan students: An exploratory qualitative study

Practicing compassion has shown to reduce distress and increase emotional well-being in clinical and non-clinical populations. The existing research is primarily focused on Western populations although the concepts of compassion are heavily influenced by Asian Buddhist views. There is a dearth of compassion research conducted particularly in the Asian context. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the views and lived experiences of compassion in Sri Lankan students, to understand whether compassion is a socially embraced construct in Sri Lanka, considering that Sri Lanka is a Buddhist influenced society. Participants' views and lived experiences of compassion towards themselves and to/from others were also investigated, with a specific focus on their perceived inhibitors and facilitators of compassion. Aims were set to identify whether Western compassion-based practices could be successfully applied to Asian societies such as Sri Lanka. An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis approach was used to obtain and analyse qualitative data from a convenience sample of 10 Sri Lankan students, recruited from a Psychology course. The phenomenological analysis of the semi-structured face-to-face interviews elicited three predominant themes: What compassion means to me, what I make of it, and compassion through facilitators and inhibitors. The findings suggested that participants shared a similar understanding of the concept of compassion as reflected in the Western definitions. Experiences and views of compassion were shaped by several factors including religion, culture, society, and upbringing. In general, this study revealed that participants were well aware of the concept of compassion as well as its impact on their psychological well-being. Despite this, inhibitors existed in experiencing compassion. The religious and collectivistic-cultural influences need to be further explored and taken into account when implementing Western compassion-based practices to non-Western contexts such as Sri Lanka.

Assessing Compassion in Korean Population: Psychometric Properties of the Korean Version of Sussex-Oxford Compassion Scales

A newly developed scale, the Sussex-Oxford Compassion Scale (SOCS) measures compassion for others and the self-based on an empirically supported five-elements definition of compassion: (a) recognizing suffering; (b) understanding the universality of suffering; (c) feeling for the person suffering; (d) tolerating uncomfortable feelings; and (e) motivation to act/acting to alleviate suffering. This study aimed to validate a Korean version of SOCS in a Korean adult sample. We administered the Sussex-Oxford Compassion Scale for Others (SOCS-O), the Sussex-Oxford Compassion Scale for the Self (SOCS-S), and other self-report measures of mindfulness, self-compassion, compassionate love, wellbeing, interpersonal reactivity, and mental health problems to analyze their psychometric properties. The findings support the five-factor hierarchical structure for the SOCS-O and SOCS-S, and as well as both scales’ adequate psychometric properties of measurement invariance, interpretability, internal consistency, floor/ceiling effects, and convergent/discriminant validity.

Self-compassion and nursing competency among Japanese psychiatric nurses

PURPOSE

This study examined the association of self-focus and self-compassion with nursing competency.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Data of 433 psychiatric nurses comprising demographics, other-consciousness, self-compassion, self-focus, and nursing competency were analyzed using the Other-Consciousness Scale (OCS), Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), Japanese version of the Rumination-Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ), and Oriented Problem Solving Behavior (OPSN).

FINDINGS

Higher internal aspect and lower fantastic aspect in OCS, higher reflection in RRQ, and lower SCS negative subscales predicted a higher OPSN score. The account rate of variance was 12.5%.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

Psychiatric nursing education should facilitate other-consciousness and reflection enhancement, and assuage uncompassionate attitude towards self.

Analysis of the correlation between students' self-compassion and external pressure under chronic stress response

BACKGROUND

Although the environment of college students is relatively safe, they are faced with the pressure of study, interpersonal relationship, and even future employment, which leads to a variety of psychological disorders, among which stress response is the most common one. As a new concept of healthy self, it is not clear how self - compassion affects students' stress response.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to analyze the role of students' self-compassion based on chronic stress response in negative emotional regulation and coping style selection caused by external pressure, and to provide a theoretical basis for the application of self-compassion in regulating individual emotions in the future.

METHODS

The 427 students from many universities in China who have applied for the 2020 postgraduate entrance examination and were preparing for the examination were classified into S1 group (preparation time < 2 months), S2 group (2 months < 5 months), and S3 group (preparation time > 5 months). The students who didn't apply for the examination were set as D0 control group. The total stress response score, learning pressure, and positive and negative emotional scores of each group were compared. The Bootstrapping sampling method was used to examine the mediating effect of self - compassion. The students applying for the examination were classified into high-level self-compassion group (G1) and low-level self-compassion group (G2).

RESULTS

The scores of learning stress and negative emotion in S1, S2, and S3 groups were significantly higher than those in D0 group, and S1 > S2 > S3 (P < 0.05). The proportion of students in G1 group who responded to review setbacks in a mature way was significantly higher than that in G2 group, and the proportion of immature type was significantly lower than that of G2 group (P < 0.05). There was a very significant positive correlation between self-compassion and problem solving and asking for help (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Self-compassion concept can reduce students' negative emotions facing external pressure and protect individual positive emotions. In conclusion, faced at external pressure and stress, individuals with high self-esteem would not escape from their own negative emotions, and were more inclined to choose a positive way to solve problems and seek help from others.

Cross-Cultural Comparison of Mental Health Between German and South African Employees: Shame, Self-Compassion, Work Engagement, and Work Motivation

The negative impact of the coronavirus disease outbreak 2019 (COVID-19) on work mental health is reported in many countries including Germany and South Africa: two culturally distinct countries. This study aims to compare mental health between the two workforces to appraise how cultural characteristics may impact their mental health status. A cross-sectional study was used with self-report measures regarding (i) mental health problems, (ii) mental health shame, (iii) self-compassion, (iv) work engagement and (v) work motivation. 257 German employees and 225 South African employees have completed those scales. This study reports results following the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines. T-tests, correlation and regression analyses were performed. German employees had lower mental health problems and mental health shame, and higher self-compassion than South Africans. Mental health problems were positively associated with mental health shame and amotivation, and negatively associated with work engagement and intrinsic motivation in both groups. Lastly, self-compassion, a PP 2.0 construct, was the strongest predictor for mental health problems in both countries. Our results suggest (i) that German culture's long-term orientation, uncertainty avoidance and restraint may help explain these differences, and (ii) that self-compassion was important to mental health in both countries. While the levels of mental health differed between the two countries, cultivating self-compassion may be an effective way to protect mental health of employees in those countries. Findings can help inform managers and HR staff to refine their wellbeing strategies to reduce the negative impact of the pandemic, especially in German-South African organizations.

Effects of Self-Compassion Training on Work-Related Well-Being: A Systematic Review

Self-compassion, sharing some commonalities with positive psychology 2.0 approaches, is associated with better mental health outcomes in diverse populations, including workers. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, there is heightened awareness of the importance of self-care for fostering mental health at work. However, evidence regarding the applications of self-compassion interventions in work-related contexts has not been systematically reviewed to date. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to synthesize and evaluate the utility of self-compassion interventions targeting work-related well-being, as well as assess the methodological quality of relevant studies. Eligible articles were identified from research databases including ProQuest, PsycINFO, Science Direct, and Google Scholar. The quality of non-randomized trials and randomized controlled trials was assessed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale and the Quality Assessment Table, respectively. The literature search yielded 3,387 titles from which ten studies met the inclusion criteria. All ten studies reported promising effects of self-compassion training for work-related well-being. The methodological quality of these studies was medium. All ten studies recruited workers in a caring field and were mostly conducted in Western countries. The Self-Compassion Scale or its short-form was used in almost all instances. Findings indicate that self-compassion training can improve self-compassion and other work-related well-being outcomes in working populations. However, in general, there is need for greater methodological quality in work-related self-compassion intervention studies to advance understanding regarding the applications and limitations of this technique in work contexts. Furthermore, future studies should focus on a broader range of employee groups, including non-caring professions as well as individuals working in non-Western countries.

Triguna (three qualities) personality model and two-factor conceptualization of self-compassion: a new insight to understand achievement goal orientations

Background

Although the three-dimensional Vedic personality model (Triguna) and self-compassion have been linked with a variety of life outcomes, little is known about their interplay in shaping goal orientations. We explored the interrelationships and interplay of the Triguna (Sattva, Rajas and Tamas) with positive and negative self-compassion in shaping the goal orientations of Indian students.

Participants and procedure

Using convenience sampling, 190 males (M = 20.13, SD = 2.21) and 187 females (M = 19.88, SD = 1.81) were assessed on self-report measures. Data were analysed using correlational statistics, factor analysis and path analysis.

Results

Factor analyses supported our speculation that the Self-Compassion Scale is best represented by a two-factor model (positive and negative). Positive self-compassion and Sattva Guna showed positive correlations with mastery and performance goals while negative self-compassion showed an opposite pattern. Rajas and Tamas Gunas were negatively correlated with mastery and positively with performance goals. Gender, Sattva Guna and positive self-compassion accounted for significant variance in mastery while gender, Sattva and Rajas Gunas and negative self-compassion contributed to performance-approach. Sattva Guna and self-compassion (positive and negative) contributed significantly to performance-avoidance. Path analysis revealed direct as well as indirect effects of the three Gunas on the goal orientations through positive and negative self-compassion.

Conclusions

The Triguna personality and two-factor conceptualization of self-compassion evinced their relevance in understanding the goal orientations of Indian students. Re-conceptualization of the Self-Compassion Scale and its interplay with Triguna personality dimensions in shaping the goal orientations of students need further verification in diverse and cross-cultural populations.

Cross-cultural comparison of mental health between Japanese and Dutch workers: relationships with mental health shame, self-compassion, work engagement and motivation

Purpose

The primary purpose of this descriptive study was to compare the levels of, and relationships among mental health problems, mental health shame, self-compassion, work engagement and work motivation between workers in Japan (collectivistic and success-driven culture) and the Netherlands (individualistic and quality-oriented culture).

Design/methodology/approach

A cross-sectional design, where convenience samples of 165 Japanese and 160 Dutch workers completed self-report measures about mental health problems, shame, self-compassion, engagement and motivation, was used. Welch t-tests, correlation and regression analyses were conducted to compare (1) the levels of these variables, (2) relationships among these variables and (3) predictors of mental health problems, between the two groups.

Findings

Dutch workers had higher levels of mental health problems, work engagement and intrinsic motivation, and lower levels of shame and amotivation than Japanese workers. Mental health problems were associated with shame in both samples. Mental health problems were negatively predicted by self-compassion in Japanese, and by work engagement in Dutch employees.

Originality/value

The novelty of this study relates to exploring differences in work mental health between those two culturally contrasting countries. Our findings highlight potential cultural differences such as survey responding (Japanese acquiescent responding vs Dutch self-enhancement) and cultural emphases (Japanese shame vs Dutch quality of life). Job crafting, mindfulness and enhancing ikigai (meaningfulness in life) may be helpful to protect mental health in these workers, relating to self-compassion and work engagement. Findings from this study would be particularly useful to employers, managers and staff in human resources who work with cross-cultural workforce.

Self-criticism, self-compassion, and perceived health: moderating effect of ethnicity

A caring and compassionate attitude toward the self (i.e., self-compassion) has been linked to various mental and physical health benefits. The Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) is widely used in psychology literature in order to assess global self-compassion. However, recent evidence suggests that the single factor model comprising positive and negative items of the SCS in fact measures two distinct constructs (i.e., self-criticism/self-coldness and self-compassion) with different psychological correlates. Given these recent findings, in addition to other research that highlights cultural differences in self-conceptualizations and self-evaluations, the present study examined potential ethnic differences in the relationships between self-criticism, self-compassion, and perceived health. Participants included 728 college students (141 Asian American, 449 European American, and 138 Hispanic/Latinx individuals) attending a university in the northeast United States. Results indicated that the relationship between self-criticism and self-compassion was significantly different across ethnicity. In addition, the relationships between these two constructs (i.e., self-criticism and self-compassion) and perceived health were moderated by ethnicity. Our findings suggest that focusing on global self-compassion scores (i.e., total SCS scores) may miss some of the important cultural or ethnic differences in the relationships between self-criticism, self-compassion, and perceived health.

The role of self-compassion in the relationship between attachment, depression, and quality of life

BACKGROUND

Self-compassion may be shaped by early attachment experiences, and has been linked to mental health and well-being. This study examined the role of two distinct features of self-compassion, self-warmth and self-coldness, in the relationship between attachment insecurity and depression as well as quality of life in a general population sample in Germany.

METHODS

Participants (N = 2,253; 53.4% female, M_age 50 years) completed the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS), Adult Attachment Scale (AAS), Beck Depression Inventory-Fast Screen (BDI-FS), and European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire (EORTC QLQ-C30). Mediation analysis was used to examine whether insecure attachment predicted increased symptoms of depression and decreased quality of life through decreased self-warmth and increased self-coldness.

RESULTS

Attachment-related anxiety and avoidance had a significant direct effect on depressive symptoms and significant indirect effect via self-warmth and self-coldness. The indirect effect via self-warmth appears to be of negligible magnitude. Attachment-related anxiety and avoidance had a significant direct effect on quality of life, and significant indirect effect via self-coldness. The indirect effect via self-warmth was not statistically significant, speaking against self-warmth as a relevant mediator.

LIMITATIONS

Causal conclusions cannot be drawn based on cross-sectional research design. All measures were based on participant self-report.

CONCLUSIONS

This study contributes to a more differentiated understanding of how attachment insecurity and self-compassion may contribute to affective disorders. Findings suggest that self-coldness may be particularly relevant in affective disorders and when addressing relational struggles, with both theoretical and clinical implications for psychotherapy and future research.

Attachment-based compassion therapy and adapted mindfulness-based stress reduction for the treatment of depressive, anxious and adjustment disorders in mental health settings: a randomised controlled clinical trial protocol

INTRODUCTION

Depressive, anxiety and adjustment disorders are highly prevalent among mental health outpatients. The lack of funding for mental health problems produces inefficient results and a high burden of disease. New cost-effective group interventions aimed at treating these symptoms might be an appropriate solution to reduce the healthcare burden in mental health units. Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have shown significant reductions in anxious, depressive and adjustment symptomatology. Recent research highlights the influence of compassion as a key mechanism of change. However, MBIs only address compassion implicitly, whereas compassion-based protocols consider it a core aspect of psychotherapy. In this randomised controlled trial, we hypothesise that the provision of attachment-based compassion therapy (ABCT), which is a compassion-based protocol, will be more effective than mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR), which is a conventional MBI programme, for the treatment of depressive, anxious and adaptive symptoms in patients in mental health settings.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Approximately 90 patients suffering from depressive, anxious or adjustment disorders recruited from Spanish mental health settings will be randomised to receive 8 weekly 2 hours group sessions of ABCT, 8 weekly 2.5 hours group sessions of adapted MBSR (with no full-day silent retreat) or treatment as usual (TAU), with a 1:1:1 allocation rate. Patients in the ABCT and adapted MBSR groups will also receive TAU. The main outcome will be general affective distress measured by means of the 'Depression Anxiety Stress Scales-21' at post-test as primary endpoint. Other outcomes will be quality of life, mindfulness, self-compassion and the use of healthcare services. There will be a 6-month follow-up assessment. Intention-to-treat analysis will be conducted using linear mixed models. Per-protocol and secondary outcome analyses will be performed. A data monitoring committee comprising the trial manager, the ABCT and MBSR teachers and an independent clinical psychologist will monitor for possible negative side effects.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the General University Hospital of Castellón, Spain. The results will be submitted to peer-reviewed specialised journals, and brief reports will be sent to participants on request.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT03425487.