1
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Kim DJ, Kim H, Kim K, Kim MJ, Jeon HJ. Association between anxiety and skin conductance according to the intensity of shaking of virtual reality images. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1196767. [PMID: 37854448 PMCID: PMC10579564 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1196767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Despite the advantages of virtual reality (VR), cyber sickness makes it difficult to apply VR to those who are already anxious and in distress. Skin conductance (SC) is widely used as a bio-signal reflecting anxiety. It is positively correlated with anxiety. The objective of this study was to determine the association between SC and anxiety in VR. Methods Healthy volunteers with moderate-to-high stress defined as a Perceived Stress Scale-10 (PSS-10) score ≥20 were enrolled. STAI-X-1 was used to measure anxiety, and galvanic skin response was used to measure SC. This study used an open, randomized, crossover design. In this study, 360° videos consisted of two types, namely, less dizzying video (G1) and more dizzying video (G2). We randomized subjects into two groups according to video exposure order: G1 after watching G2 (Order 1) and G2 after watching G1 (Order 2). Of 81 subjects, the average age (±SD) was 39.98 ± 10.94 years for the Order 1 group and 36.54 ± 12.44 years for the Order 2 group. Results Anxiety was significantly decreased in the Order 2 group (p < 0.035) after watching videos, whereas there was no significant change in anxiety in the Order 1 group. In both groups, SC was significantly increased after exposure to a dizzying video. Mean difference (SD) between the second VR video and baseline SC was 1.61 (1.07) (p < 0.0001) in the Order 1 group and 0.92 (0.90) (p < 0.0001) in the Order 2 group, showing a significant difference between the two groups (p < 0.003). However, there was no significant difference between the two groups (p < 0.077) after baseline correction. Conclusion Anxiety was decreased significantly in the Order 2 group. The Order 1 group showed a high rate of change in skin conductivity. It is possible to reduce SC and anxiety by viewing a less dizzying VR video first and then viewing a more dizzying video later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Jun Kim
- Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Meditrix Co., Ltd., Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences & Technology (SAIHST), Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyewon Kim
- Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kiwon Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, Kangdong Sacred Heart Hospital, Hallym University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Ji Kim
- Biomedical Statistics Center, Samsung Medical Center, Research Institute for Future Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Jin Jeon
- Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Meditrix Co., Ltd., Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Medical Device Management and Research, Clinical Research Design and Evaluation, SAIHST, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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2
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Browning MHEM, Shin S, Drong G, McAnirlin O, Gagnon RJ, Ranganathan S, Sindelar K, Hoptman D, Bratman GN, Yuan S, Prabhu VG, Heller W. Daily exposure to virtual nature reduces symptoms of anxiety in college students. Sci Rep 2023; 13:1239. [PMID: 36690698 PMCID: PMC9868517 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28070-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure to natural environments offers an array of mental health benefits. Virtual reality provides simulated experiences of being in nature when outdoor access is limited. Previous studies on virtual nature have focused mainly on single "doses" of virtual nature. The effects of repeated exposure remain poorly understood. Motivated by this gap, we studied the influence of a daily virtual nature intervention on symptoms of anxiety, depression, and an underlying cause of poor mental health: rumination. Forty college students (58% non-Hispanic White, median age = 19) were recruited from two U.S. universities and randomly assigned to the intervention or control group. Over several weeks, anxious arousal (panic) and anxious apprehension (worry) decreased with virtual nature exposure. Participants identifying as women, past VR users, experienced with the outdoors, and engaged with the beauty in nature benefited particularly strongly from virtual nature. Virtual nature did not help symptoms of anhedonic depression or rumination. Further research is necessary to distinguish when and for whom virtual nature interventions impact mental health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew H E M Browning
- Virtual Reality and Nature Lab, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
- Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
| | - Seunguk Shin
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Gabrielle Drong
- College of Education, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Olivia McAnirlin
- Virtual Reality and Nature Lab, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
- Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Ryan J Gagnon
- Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Shyam Ranganathan
- School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | | | | | - Gregory N Bratman
- School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Shuai Yuan
- Virtual Reality and Nature Lab, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
- Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
| | - Vishnunarayan Girishan Prabhu
- Virtual Reality and Nature Lab, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
- Systems Engineering and Engineering Management, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, NC, USA
| | - Wendy Heller
- Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
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3
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Litleskare S, Calogiuri G. Seasonal Variations in the Effectiveness of Immersive Virtual Nature. HERD-HEALTH ENVIRONMENTS RESEARCH & DESIGN JOURNAL 2023; 16:219-232. [PMID: 36154715 PMCID: PMC9755693 DOI: 10.1177/19375867221127420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
AIM The aim of this study was to assess whether the outcomes of immersive virtual nature (IVN) varies between seasons. BACKGROUND IVN has received increased interest in recent years due to its potential applications within health and design. However, factors influencing people's responses to IVN are largely unknown. Seasons affect a variety of human processes and behaviors including levels of affect and blood pressure, also in the context of human-nature interactions. These seasonal variations might influence how people interact and respond to IVN, especially since IVN allow for representations of nature that are not representative of the current real-life season. METHODS A secondary analysis of data retrieved from two previous studies, which included three IVN conditions, was conducted. All IVNs represented late spring conditions. Measures included perceived environmental restorativeness, affect, enjoyment, heart rate, and blood pressure. A meta-analytic approach was used to assess whether there were consistent differences between participants who were exposed to the IVN in spring/summer (early June to mid-September) and autumn/winter (mid-September to December) across the three different conditions. RESULTS There was a consistent effect of season only for one component of affect (fatigue), with larger reductions in fatigue when exposed to IVN during autumn/winter compared to spring/summer. No other significant effects of season were observed. CONCLUSION IVNs are feasible to use across all seasons but might be more effective in reducing the feeling of fatigue during autumn and winter compared to other seasons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigbjørn Litleskare
- Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway,Sigbjørn Litleskare, MSc, Høgskolen i Innlandet, Postboks 400, 2418 Elverum, Norway.
| | - Giovanna Calogiuri
- Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway,Centre for Health and Technology, Department of Nursing and Health Sciences, University of South-Eastern Norway, Drammen, Norway
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4
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Kittel A, Spittle M, Larkin P, Spittle S. 360°VR: Application for exercise and sport science education. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:977075. [PMID: 37020467 PMCID: PMC10067750 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.977075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Aden Kittel
- Institute for Health & Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Correspondence: Aden Kittel
| | - Michael Spittle
- Institute for Health & Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul Larkin
- Institute for Health & Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Maribyrnong Sports Academy, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sharna Spittle
- College of Sport and Exercise Science, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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5
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Litleskare S, Fröhlich F, Flaten OE, Haile A, Kjøs Johnsen SÅ, Calogiuri G. Taking real steps in virtual nature: a randomized blinded trial. VIRTUAL REALITY 2022; 26:1777-1793. [PMID: 35818369 PMCID: PMC9261150 DOI: 10.1007/s10055-022-00670-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Studies show that green exercise (i.e., physical activity in the presence of nature) can provide the synergistic psychophysiological benefits of both physical exercise and nature exposure. The present study aimed to investigate the extent to which virtual green exercise may extend these benefits to people that are unable to engage in active visits to natural environments, as well as to promote enhanced exercise behavior. After watching a video validated to elicit sadness, participants either performed a treadmill walk while exposed to one of two virtual conditions, which were created using different techniques (360° video or 3D model), or walked on a treadmill while facing a blank wall (control). Quantitative and qualitative data were collected in relation to three overarching themes: "Experience," "Physical engagement" and "Psychophysiological recovery." Compared to control, greater enjoyment was found in the 3D model, while lower walking speed was found in the 360° video. No significant differences among conditions were found with respect to heart rate, perceived exertion, or changes in blood pressure and affect. The analysis of qualitative data provided further understanding on the participants' perceptions and experiences. These findings indicate that 3D model-based virtual green exercise can provide some additional benefits compared to indoor exercise, while 360° video-based virtual green exercise may result in lower physical engagement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigbjørn Litleskare
- Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
| | - Fred Fröhlich
- Game School–Department of Game Development, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Hamar, Norway
| | - Ole Einar Flaten
- Game School–Department of Game Development, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Hamar, Norway
| | - Amelia Haile
- Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
| | - Svein Åge Kjøs Johnsen
- Department of Psychology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Lillehammer, Norway
| | - Giovanna Calogiuri
- Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Elverum, Norway
- Department of Nursing and Health Sciences, Centre for Health and Technology, University of South-Eastern Norway, Drammen, Norway
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6
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A mixed-methods exploration of virtual reality as a tool to promote green exercise. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5715. [PMID: 35383263 PMCID: PMC8983725 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09622-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The salutogenic effects of green exercise are widely recognised, yet many individuals do not engage in this health-related behaviour. Using a convergent mixed methods approach, this study explored the impact of experiencing nature through Virtual Reality (VR) on the decision-making process relating to green exercise. Three experimental trials were conducted (overall n = 136), in which healthy adults were exposed to different VR scenarios reproducing a virtual walk in an existing urban green area. Participants reported medium–high rating of intent to visit the location. Significant pre-to-post increments in future green exercise intention were observed after the VR exposure, though a significance difference was not achieved in comparison with a control condition. Qualitative analysis revealed the impact of the VR experience on behaviour regulation, and highlighted the pivotal role of anticipated emotional benefits. Despite scepticism, the VR experience was effective in arousing curiosity to explore natural environments, which was associated with environmental perceptions as well as nostalgic and socio-cultural perspectives.
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Nukarinen T, Rantala J, Korpela K, Browning MH, Istance HO, Surakka V, Raisamo R. Measures and modalities in restorative virtual natural environments: An integrative narrative review. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2021.107008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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8
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Blair C, Walsh C, Best P. Immersive 360° videos in health and social care education: a scoping review. BMC MEDICAL EDUCATION 2021; 21:590. [PMID: 34819063 PMCID: PMC8611631 DOI: 10.1186/s12909-021-03013-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research on the pedagogical use of immersive 360° videos is a rapidly expanding area within health and social care education. Despite this interest, there is a paucity of empirical data on its application. METHOD A scoping review methodology framework was used to search for relevant articles published between 1970 and July 2021. Six databases were used to identify studies using immersive 360° videos for training and education purposes within health and social care: PubMed, Ovid Medline, Psych Info, Psych Articles, Cochrane Database and Embase. Research questions included: Is there any evidence that immersive 360° videos increase learning outcomes and motivation to learn in health and social care education? What are the key pedagogical concepts and theories that inform this area of research? What are the limitations of using immersive 360° videos within health and social education? The four dimensions contained within Keller's ARCS model (attention, relevance, confidence and satisfaction) frame the results section. RESULTS Fourteen studies met our inclusion criteria. Learning outcomes confirm that immersive 360° videos as a pedagogical tool: increases attention, has relevance in skill enhancement, confidence in usability and user satisfaction. In particular, immersive 360° videos has a positive effect on the user's emotional response to the learning climate, which has a significant effect on users' motivation to learn. There was a notable lack of pedagogical theory within the studies retrieved and a general lack of clarity on learning outcomes. CONCLUSION Studies examining the effectiveness of such interventions remains weak due to smaller sample sizes, lack of randomised control trials, and a gap in reporting intervention qualities and outcomes. Nevertheless, 360° immersive video is a viable alternative to VR and regular video, it is cost-effective, and although more robust research is necessary, learning outcomes are promising. FUTURE DIRECTIONS Future research would do well to focus on interactivity and application of pedagogical theory within immersive 360° videos experiences. We argue that more and higher quality research studies, beyond the scope of medical education, are needed to explore the acceptability and effective implementation of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn Blair
- School of Social Sciences, Education and Social Work, Queen's University Belfast, 6 College Park, Belfast, Northern Ireland.
| | - Colm Walsh
- School of Social Sciences, Education and Social Work, Queen's University Belfast, 6 College Park, Belfast, Northern Ireland
| | - Paul Best
- School of Social Sciences, Education and Social Work, Queen's University Belfast, 6 College Park, Belfast, Northern Ireland
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9
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Li H, Zhang X, Wang H, Yang Z, Liu H, Cao Y, Zhang G. Access to Nature via Virtual Reality: A Mini-Review. Front Psychol 2021; 12:725288. [PMID: 34675840 PMCID: PMC8523668 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.725288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Nature exposure is known to promote physical and mental health. However, actual nature exposure may be difficult to achieve for the population of people with physical disabilities or chronic conditions. Therefore, many attempts have been made to duplicate nature exposure via media devices, and virtual reality (VR) is deemed as a promising technology due to its advantage in creating a sense of immersion. Generally, current studies suggest that being exposed to virtual nature may contribute to psychological and physiological relaxation. Besides, some pieces of evidence indicate that virtual nature may improve attentional resources, cognitive performance, and pain experience. Although VR is deemed as an advanced media, insufficient evidence was found concerning the advantages of VR over traditional two-dimensional media when it comes to simulated nature exposure. On the other hand, computer-generated (CG) scenarios were found to be more beneficial than 360° videos, and mini-games may be useful in creating an interactive VR format for simulated nature exposure. Further research is needed because of the limited relevant studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hansen Li
- Key Laboratory of Physical Fitness Evaluation and Motor Function Monitoring of General Administration of Sports of China, Institute of Sports Science, College of Physical Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xing Zhang
- Department of Basketball and Volleyball, Chengdu Sport University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hongying Wang
- College of Physical Education, JiMei University, Xiamen, China
| | - Zongqian Yang
- Key Laboratory of Physical Fitness Evaluation and Motor Function Monitoring of General Administration of Sports of China, Institute of Sports Science, College of Physical Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Haowei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Physical Fitness Evaluation and Motor Function Monitoring of General Administration of Sports of China, Institute of Sports Science, College of Physical Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yang Cao
- Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Medical Sciences, Örebro University, Örebro, Sweden.,Unit of Integrative Epidemiology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Guodong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Physical Fitness Evaluation and Motor Function Monitoring of General Administration of Sports of China, Institute of Sports Science, College of Physical Education, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
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10
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Litleskare S. The relationship between postural stability and cybersickness: It's complicated - An experimental trial assessing practical implications of cybersickness etiology. Physiol Behav 2021; 236:113422. [PMID: 33839164 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) is known to cause cybersickness, and studies report that deteriorations of postural stability coincides with the onset cybersickness. It is unclear whether these deteriorations are the cause or a consequence of cybersickness. Thus, it is also unclear whether measures of postural stability may either predict susceptibility (cause) or objectively measure (consequence) the malaise. To examine whether deteriorations of postural stability can either predict or objectively measure cybersickness, healthy active adults (n = 50) were exposed to one of two different 10 min 360˚ VR videos. Postural stability was assessed, using a force platform, before exposure with eyes open (baseline) and eyes closed, during the first and last minute of exposure, and approximately 10 min after exposure. The deterioration of postural stability from baseline to the first minute of exposure was larger in participants who reported cybersickness, compared to those who did not, for both total trace length (p = 0.017) and standard deviation velocity (p = 0.008). However, there was substantial individual variation and overlap between sick and well participants. Deteriorations of postural stability from baseline to the eyes closed condition did not differ between sick and well participants (trace length, p = 0.270; standard deviation velocity, p = 0.112). There was a significant correlation between the severity of cybersickness and the change of postural stability from the first to the last minute of VR exposure for trace length (rs=0.32, p = 0.027), but not standard deviation velocity (rs=0.20, p = 0.187). The deteriorations had returned to baseline levels 10 min after exposure. These findings suggest that deteriorations of postural stability was both a predictor and objective measure at a group level. However, the large individual variation, substantial overlap between sick and well participants, and the limited strength of correlations suggest that deterioration of postural stability has limited practical value as both a predictor and objective measure. These findings emphasize the complicated nature of the relationship between cybersickness and postural stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigbjørn Litleskare
- Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Terningen Arena, Hamarveien 112, 2406 Elverum, Norway.
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Kittel A, Larkin P, Cunningham I, Spittle M. 360° Virtual Reality: A SWOT Analysis in Comparison to Virtual Reality. Front Psychol 2020; 11:563474. [PMID: 33117230 PMCID: PMC7575688 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.563474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Aden Kittel
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Footscray, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul Larkin
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Footscray, VIC, Australia
- Maribyrnong Sport Academy, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ian Cunningham
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Ontario Tech University, Oshawa, ON, Canada
| | - Michael Spittle
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Footscray, VIC, Australia
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12
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Egner LE, Sütterlin S, Calogiuri G. Proposing a Framework for the Restorative Effects of Nature through Conditioning: Conditioned Restoration Theory. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E6792. [PMID: 32957693 PMCID: PMC7558998 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17186792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Natural environments have been shown to trigger psychological and physiological restoration in humans. A new framework regarding natural environments restorative properties is proposed. Conditioned restoration theory builds on a classical conditioning paradigm, postulating the occurrence of four stages: (i) unconditioned restoration, unconditioned positive affective responses reliably occur in a given environment (such as in a natural setting); (ii) restorative conditioning, the positive affective responses become conditioned to the environment; (iii) conditioned restoration, subsequent exposure to the environment, in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus, retrieves the same positive affective responses; and (iv) stimulus generalization, subsequent exposure to associated environmental cues retrieves the same positive affective responses. The process, hypothetically not unique to natural environments, involve the well-documented phenomenon of conditioning, retrieval, and association and relies on evaluative conditioning, classical conditioning, core affect, and conscious expectancy. Empirical findings showing that restoration can occur in non-natural environments and through various sensory stimuli, as well as findings demonstrating that previous negative experience with nature can subsequently lower restorative effects, are also presented in support of the theory. In integration with other existing theories, the theory should prove to be a valuable framework for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Even Egner
- Citizens, Environment and Safety, Institute of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7048 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Stefan Sütterlin
- Faculty of Health and Welfare Sciences, Østfold University College, 1757 Halden, Norway;
- Division of Clinical Neuroscience, Oslo University Hospital, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Giovanna Calogiuri
- Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, University of South-Eastern Norway, 3045 Drammen, Norway;
- Department of Public Health and Sport Sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2411 Elverum, Norway
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13
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Litleskare S, E. MacIntyre T, Calogiuri G. Enable, Reconnect and Augment: A New ERA of Virtual Nature Research and Application. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17051738. [PMID: 32155911 PMCID: PMC7084893 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17051738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2020] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Being exposed to natural environments is associated with improved health and well-being, as these environments are believed to promote feelings of “being away” from everyday struggles, positive emotional reactions and stress reduction. Despite these positive effects, humanity is becoming increasingly more distanced from nature due to societal changes, such as increased urbanization and the reduced accessibility of natural environments. Technology is also partly to blame, as research suggests that people replace nature contact with increased screen time. In this cross-section between nature and technology, we find technological nature which is progressing towards a point where we may be capable of simulating exposure to real nature. Concerns have been raised regarding this technology, as it is feared it will replace real nature. However, research suggests that virtual nature may have a more positive impact on society than a mere replacement of real nature, and this review propose several areas where virtual nature may be a beneficial addition to actual nature (Enable), help people reconnect with the real natural world (Reconnect) and “boost” human-nature interactions (Augment). Based on the current research and theoretical framework, this review proposes guidelines for future research within these areas, with the aim of advancing the field by producing high quality research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigbjørn Litleskare
- Faculty of social and health sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2406 Elverum, Norway;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +47-62430218
| | - Tadhg E. MacIntyre
- GO GREEN Initiative, Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland;
| | - Giovanna Calogiuri
- Faculty of social and health sciences, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, 2406 Elverum, Norway;
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