Screen Time and Executive Function in Toddlerhood: A Longitudinal Study

Sleep problems and executive dysfunctions in pre-school children

AIM

The aim of the study was to examine the relationship between sleep problems and executive functions in pre-school children as reported by parents/caregivers.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study of caregiver-child dyads was conducted in a public kindergarten school in Northern Thailand. Sleep problems were evaluated using the Children's Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ), whereas executive functions were assessed using the Behavioural Rating Inventory of Executive Function - pre-school version (BRIEF-P). T-scores greater than 65 of the BRIEF-P were defined as deficits in executive functions. Multiple linear regressions were performed to assess the association between the executive function components and the total CSHQ scores.

RESULTS

Participants included 356 children, with a mean age of 5.04 (0.54) years. The total CSHQ scores of the executive dysfunction group were significantly higher than those of the group with executive functions below the cutoff (P < 0.001), which indicated more of sleep problems, including sleep-onset delay, night waking and daytime sleepiness. However, the duration of night sleep, night awake, afternoon nap and total sleep time reported by parents did not differ between the two groups. Weak positive correlations between the total CSHQ and subscale scores and the Global Executive Composite score of the BRIEF-P were noted. After adjusting for confounding variables, including child's age, gender, prematurity, maternal age and education, family income and media viewing time from the multiple linear regression analysis, the total CSHQ scores were significantly correlated with worse Global Executive Composite scores, which is the summary of five domains of executive functions (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the association between sleep problems and deficits in executive functions in healthy pre-school children. Health-care providers are encouraged to consistently advocate for proper sleep hygiene and practices to enhance executive functions in pre-schoolers.

Balancing screen time: Insights and impact on preschool children

Over the past decade, the exposure of young children to screen devices at home and preschool has become increasingly common. Screen viewing time (SVT) has risen alongside the surge in ownership of screen devices such as television, smartphones, tablets and laptops worldwide.1 In many countries, screen time and digital technology is utilised as tools to support young children’s development of practical skills in creativity, problem-solving, curiosity, and expanding their knowledge to new topics, cultures and ideas. However, screen time can be a double-edged sword.2

Long-Term Growth and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes of Neonates Infected with SARS-CoV-2 during the COVID-19 Pandemic at 18-24 Months Corrected Age: A Prospective Observational Study

INTRODUCTION

During the early coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic in 2020, researchers cautioned about the potential neuroinvasive capability of the virus and long-term neurological consequences. Although a few preliminary studies have found delayed communication, fine motor, and problem-solving skills in infants after COVID-19 infection, there continues to be a paucity of data on long-term development of neonates diagnosed with COVID-19.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective study of 20 neonates who acquired severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection during the first wave of the pandemic (April-July 2020). At 18-24 months corrected age, we assessed neurodevelopment by Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, the third edition (BSID-III), along with growth, hearing, and vision evaluation.

RESULTS

The mean corrected age at assessment was 21 months 11 days ± 1 month 28 days. We found developmental delay in nearly half of the children with scores below one standard deviation in either of the BSID-III domains. Mild delay in either motor, cognitive, or language domains was found in 9 (45%) children and moderate delay in 2 (10%). Expressive language, fine motor, and receptive language were predominantly affected. None of the children had hearing impairment, blindness, or significant growth faltering including clinically severe microcephaly. The mean composite cognitive, language, and motor scores were significantly lower in those with neurodevelopmental delay (p value - 0.02, 0.000, and 0.03, respectively) without any differences in their disease characteristics.

CONCLUSION

Neonates infected with SARS-CoV-2 have an increased risk of developmental delays in expressive language, fine motor, and receptive language skills at 18-24 months of age. The severity of delays is predominantly mild.

Relations between Video Game Engagement and Social Development in Children: The Mediating Role of Executive Function and Age-Related Moderation

The global proliferation of video games, particularly among children, has led to growing concerns about the potential impact on children's social development. Executive function is a cognitive ability that plays a crucial role in children's social development, but a child's age constrains its development. To examine the association between video game engagement and children's social development while considering the mediating role of executive function and the moderating role of age, a questionnaire was distributed to a sample of 431 parents. The results revealed a negative relation between video game engagement and social development in children, with executive function found to mediate this relation fully. Additionally, the negative association between video game engagement and executive function became more pronounced as children grew older. In light of these findings, it is advisable to adopt proactive strategies to limit excessive video game use, consider the developmental characteristics of children at different ages, and prioritize the promotion of executive function to facilitate social development among children.

Youth Screen Media Activity Patterns and Associations With Behavioral Developmental Measures and Resting-state Brain Functional Connectivity

OBJECTIVE

Screen media activity (SMA) consumes considerable time in youth's lives, raising concerns about the effects it may have on youth development. Disentangling mixed associations between SMA of youth and developmental measures should move beyond overall screen time and consider types and patterns of SMA. This study aimed to identify reliable and generalizable SMA patterns among youth and examine their associations with behavioral developmental measures and developing brain functional connectivity.

METHOD

Three waves of Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development (ABCD) data were examined. The Lifespan Human Connectome Project in Development (HCP-D) was interrogated as an independent sample. ABCD participants included 11,876 children at baseline. HCP-D participants included 652 children and adolescents. Youth-reported SMA and behavioral developmental measures (neurocognitive performance, behavioral problems, psychotic-like experiences, impulsivity, and sensitivities to punishment/reward) were assessed with validated instruments. We identified SMA patterns in the ABCD baseline data using K-means clustering and sensitivity analyses. Generalizability and stability of the identified SMA patterns were examined in HCP-D data and ABCD follow-up waves, respectively. Relations between SMA patterns and behavioral and brain (resting-state brain functional connectivity) measures were examined using linear mixed effects modeling with false discovery rate (FDR) correction.

RESULTS

SMA data from 11,815 children (mean [SD] age = 119.0 [7.5] months; 6,159 [52.1%] boys) were examined; 3,151 (26.7%) demonstrated a video-centric higher-frequency SMA pattern, and 8,664 (73.3%) demonstrated a lower-frequency pattern. SMA patterns were validated in similarly aged HCP-D youth. Compared with the lower-frequency SMA pattern group, the video-centric higher-frequency SMA pattern group showed poorer neurocognitive performance (β = -.12, 95% CI [-0.08, -0.16], FDR-corrected p < .001), more total behavioral problems (β = .13, 95% CI [0.09, 0.18], FDR-corrected p < .001), and more psychotic-like experiences (β = .31, 95% CI [0.27, 0.36], FDR-corrected p < .001). The video-centric higher-frequency SMA pattern group demonstrated higher impulsivity, more sensitivity to punishment/reward, and altered resting-state brain functional connectivity among brain areas implicated previously in cognitive processes. Most of the associations persisted with age in the ABCD data, with more participants (n = 3,378, 30.4%) in the video-centric higher-frequency SMA group at 1-year follow-up. A social communication-centric SMA pattern was observed in HCP-D adolescents.

CONCLUSION

Video-centric SMA patterns are reliable and generalizable during late childhood. A higher-frequency video entertainment SMA pattern group showed altered resting-state brain functional connectivity and poorer developmental measures that persisted longitudinally. The findings suggest that public health strategies to decrease excessive time spent by children on video entertainment-related SMA are needed. Further studies are needed to examine potential video-centric/social communication-centric SMA bifurcation to understand dynamic changes and trajectories of SMA patterns and related outcomes developmentally.

DIVERSITY & INCLUSION STATEMENT

We worked to ensure sex and gender balance in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure race, ethnic, and/or other types of diversity in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. We actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our author group. We actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our author group. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our reference list. The author list of this paper includes contributors from the location and/or community where the research was conducted who participated in the data collection, design, analysis, and/or interpretation of the work.

Screen time and preschool children: Promoting health and development in a digital world

COVID-19 transformed the family media environment and spurred research on the effects of screen media exposure and use on young children. This update of a 2017 CPS statement re-examines the potential benefits and risks of screen media in children younger than 5 years, with focus on developmental, psychosocial, and physical health. Four evidence-based principles-minimizing, mitigating, mindfully using, and modelling healthy use of screens-continue to guide children's early experience with a rapidly changing media landscape. Knowing how young children learn and develop informs best practice for health care providers and early years professionals (e.g., early childhood educators, child care providers). Anticipatory guidance should now include child and family screen use in (and beyond) pandemic conditions.

Associations Between Infant Screen Use, Electroencephalography Markers, and Cognitive Outcomes

Importance

Research evidence is mounting for the association between infant screen use and negative cognitive outcomes related to attention and executive functions. The nature, timing, and persistence of screen time exposure on neural functions are currently unknown. Electroencephalography (EEG) permits elucidation of the neural correlates associated with cognitive impairments.

Objective

To examine the associations between infant screen time, EEG markers, and school-age cognitive outcomes using mediation analysis with structural equation modeling.

Design, Setting, and Participants

This prospective maternal-child dyad cohort study included participants from the population-based study Growing Up in Singapore Toward Healthy Outcomes (GUSTO). Pregnant mothers were enrolled in their first trimester from June 2009 through December 2010. A subset of children who completed neurodevelopmental visits at ages 12 months and 9 years had EEG performed at age 18 months. Data were reported from 3 time points at ages 12 months, 18 months, and 9 years. Mediation analyses were used to investigate how neural correlates were involved in the paths from infant screen time to the latent construct of attention and executive functioning. Data for this study were collected from November 2010 to March 2020 and were analyzed between October 2021 and May 2022.

Exposures

Parent-reported screen time at age 12 months.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Power spectral density from EEG was collected at age 18 months. Child attention and executive functions were measured with teacher-reported questionnaires and objective laboratory-based tasks at age 9 years.

Results

In this sample of 437 children, the mean (SD) age at follow-up was 8.84 (0.07) years, and 227 children (51.9%) were male. The mean (SD) amount of daily screen time at age 12 months was 2.01 (1.86) hours. Screen time at age 12 months contributed to multiple 9-year attention and executive functioning measures (η2, 0.03-0.16; Cohen d, 0.35-0.87). A subset of 157 children had EEG performed at age 18 months; EEG relative theta power and theta/beta ratio at the frontocentral and parietal regions showed a graded correlation with 12-month screen use (r = 0.35-0.37). In the structural equation model accounting for household income, frontocentral and parietal theta/beta ratios partially mediated the association between infant screen time and executive functioning at school age (exposure-mediator β, 0.41; 95% CI, 0.22 to 0.59; mediator-outcome β, -0.38; 95% CI, -0.64 to -0.11), forming an indirect path that accounted for 39.4% of the association.

Conclusions and Relevance

In this study, infant screen use was associated with altered cortical EEG activity before age 2 years; the identified EEG markers mediated the association between infant screen time and executive functions. Further efforts are urgently needed to distinguish the direct association of infant screen use compared with family factors that predispose early screen use on executive function impairments.

Voluntariness and type of digital device usage: A study in terms of Vygotsky's cultural-historical perspective

Introduction

In recent years, exposure to digital devices during the development stages of a child has been steadily increasing. Exploring the relationship between children's digital device exposure and their voluntariness still shows quite contradictory results. Screen time is the most studied factor on this issue. The purpose of the present study was to suggest the type of digital device used is another factor in addition to screen time. In accordance with the research hypothesis, the use of digital devices as a psychological means is related to higher voluntariness scores.

Methods

The study sample was recruited from Moscow kindergartens and schools: preschoolers aged 5-6 years (n = 408) and 6-7 years (n = 351) and schoolchildren aged 7-8 years (n = 253) and 9-10 years (n = 101). The study participants took part in a voluntariness assessment performed via executive functions' (EF) evaluation as well as in a semi-structured interview to identify the type and frequency of digital device usage.

Results

There are three findings of the present study, which are given as follows. First, the "frequency of digital device usage" predictor proved its statistical significance for verbal working memory, inhibition, and cognitive flexibility at 7-8 years, and for verbal working memory at 6-7 years. Second, the number of children who use digital devices as a psychological means increases as they grow older. Third, the number of children who use digital devices as a psychological means tends to demonstrate higher mean scores for any executive function skills at 6-7 and 9-10 years and for visual and verbal working memory at 7-8 years. Multiple regression models did not confirm the significance of the "type of digital devices usage" predictor for executive function skills considering the participants' individual characteristics.

Discussion

"Type of digital devices usage" predictor is assumed to be more applicable to children at the end of primary school and older when exploring executive function skills in the context of children's digital device exposure.

Toward a dimensional model of risk and protective factors influencing children's early cognitive, social, and emotional development during the COVID-19 pandemic

Variation in infants' home environment is implicated in their cognitive and psycho-social development. The pandemic has intensified variations in home environments through exacerbating socioeconomic inequalities, and increasing psychological stressors for some families. This study investigates the effects of parental (predominantly maternal) mental health, enriching activities and screen use on 280 24- to 52-month-olds' executive functions, internalising and externalising problems, and pro-social behaviour; with socioeconomic status and social support as contextual factors. Our results indicate that aspects of the home environment are differentially associated with children's cognitive and psycho-social development. Parents who experienced sustained mental distress during the pandemic tended to report higher child externalising and internalising problems, and executive function difficulties at follow-up. Children who spent more time engaged in enriching activities with their parents showed stronger executive functions and social competence six months later. Screen use levels during the first year of the pandemic were not associated with outcomes. To mitigate the risk of persistent negative effects for this 'pandemic generation' of infants, our study highlights the importance of supporting parents' mental health. As our results demonstrate the impact of social support on mental health, investing in support services and interventions promoting building support networks are likely to be beneficial.

Mother-child synchrony is high across child executive function levels for both physical and digital spatial play

PURPOSE

Play is a powerful influence on children's learning and parents can provide opportunities to learn specific content by scaffolding children's play. Parent-child synchrony (i.e., harmony, reciprocity and responsiveness in interactions) is a component of parent-child interactions that is not well characterized in studies of play.

PROCEDURES

We tested whether children's executive function relates to mother-child synchrony during physical and digital play in sixty mother-child dyads.

MAIN FINDINGS

Mother-child synchrony did not relate to children's executive function or differ by play type (physical, digital), though during digital play mother-child synchrony was higher for girls relative to boys.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that mother-child synchrony is not influenced by children's executive function and physical and digital play can be similarly beneficial in offering the opportunity for responsive, reciprocal, dynamic interactions. The sex difference suggests that further factors should be explored as influences of play synchrony.

Screen Media Exposure in Early Childhood and Its Relation to Children’s Self-Regulation

Self-regulation, the ability to control thoughts, emotions, and behavior for goal-directed activities, shows rapid development in infancy, toddlerhood, and preschool periods. Early self-regulatory skills predict later academic achievement and socioemotional adjustment. An increasing number of studies suggest that screen media use may have negative effects on children’s developing self-regulatory skills. In this systematic review, we summarized and integrated the findings of the studies investigating the relationship between young children’s screen media use and their self-regulation. We searched the ERIC, PsycINFO, PubMed, and Web of Science databases and identified 39 relevant articles with 45 studies. We found that screen time in infancy is negatively associated with self-regulation, but findings were more inconsistent for later ages suggesting that screen time does not adequately capture the extent of children’s screen media use. The findings further indicated that background TV is negatively related to children’s self-regulation, and watching fantastical content seems to have immediate negative effects on children’s self-regulatory skills. We suggest that future studies should take the content and context of children’s screen media use into account and also focus on parent- and home-related factors such as parental behaviors that foster the development of self-regulatory skills.

How young children's play is shaped through common iPad applications: a study of 2 and 4-5 year-olds

Digital devices such as iPads are prevalent in children's play from an early age. How this shapes young children's play is an area of considerable debate without any clear consensus on how different forms of play are brought into the iPad interaction. In this study, we examined 98 play activities of children in two preschool settings, featuring 2 and 4-5-year-olds, their play with iPads and non-digital artefacts. Three analytical approaches were used: an index built on a digital play framework [Bird, Jo, and Susan Edwards. 2015. "Children Learning to Use Technologies Through Play: A Digital Play Framework." British Journal of Educational Technology 46 (6): 1149-1160. doi:10.1111/bjet.12191 ], a quantitative description of the index, and a qualitative interaction analysis of children's play. Results show how play with iPads is characterised as less ludic than play with other artefacts, and diverges from the age-typical norms of play. We discuss what these results might mean for children's play in contemporary early childhood settings and for children's learning.

Mothers' and fathers' executive function both predict emergent executive function in toddlerhood

There are multivariate influences on the development of children's executive function throughout the lifespan and substantial individual differences can be seen as early as when children are 1 and 2 years of age. These individual differences are moderately stable throughout early childhood, but more research is needed to better understand their origins. To some degree, individual differences in executive function are correlated between mother and child, but no research to date has examined these associations prior to when children are preschool age, nor have any studies considered the role of fathers' and mothers' executive function in tandem. Here, we use a sample of 484 families (Mothers 89.2% white; Fathers 92.5% white) in three countries (UK, USA, Netherlands) to investigate the role of each parents' executive function on the development of children's (49.7% female) executive function from 14 (M = 14.42, SD = 0.57) to 24 (M = 24.47, SD = 0.78) months, as well as parenting practices that underlie these associations. Results of structural equation models suggest stability in some-but not all-components of executive function and growing unity between components as children age. We replicate extant findings such that mothers' executive function predicts children's executive function over and above stability and extend these findings to include associations between father and child skills. We find an additive role of fathers' EF, similar in magnitude to the role of mothers' EF. Finally, for both mothers and fathers we find that sensitivity and autonomy supportive practices mediate the relations between parents' and children's executive function.

Effects of screen exposure on young children's cognitive development: A review

The past decade has witnessed a rapid increase in the use of screen media in families, and infants are exposed to screens at younger ages than ever before. The objective of this review is twofold: (1) to understand the correlates and demographic factors determining exposure to screens, including interactive screens, when available, and (2) to study the effects of watching screens and using touchscreens on cognitive development, during the first 3 years of life. We argue that the effects of screen viewing depend mostly on contextual aspects of the viewing rather than on the quantity of viewing. That context includes the behavior of adult caregivers during viewing, the watched content in relation to the child's age, the interactivity of the screen and whether the screen is in the background or not. Depending on the context, screen viewing can have positive, neutral or negative effects on infants' cognition.

Longitudinal Associations of Children’s Hyperactivity/Inattention, Peer Relationship Problems and Mobile Device Use

Children with emotional, behavioral or relationship problems may be more inclined to use mobile touchscreen devices (MTSDs: mobiles and tablets) to regulate their emotions or compensate for the lack of social relationships, which, in turn, may affect their symptoms. Bi-directional longitudinal associations between behavioral difficulties and MTSD use were analyzed. Participants were parents of children aged 4–6 years old at first data collection (n = 173), and 7–9 years old at second data collection (n = 98). They reported on their child’s MTSD use and behavioral difficulties at two time points (T1 and T2). It was analyzed whether T1 MTSD use predicts T2 behavioral difficulties (controlling for demographics and T1 behavioral difficulties); and whether T1 behavioral difficulties predict T2 MTSD use (controlling for demographics and T1 MTSD use). Additionally, cross-sectional associations between behavioral difficulties and MTSD use were analyzed. Children’s T1 hyperactivity/inattention score positively associated with T2 MTSD use, and peer relationship problems and MTSD use positively associated in T2. Pre-schoolers with more hyperactive inattentive symptoms may use MTSDs more to regulate their emotions. The association between peer relationship problems and MTSD use in T2 is consistent with poorer socio-cognitive skills in MTSD user children and may be bi-directional.

An Initial Investigation into Parental Perceptions Surrounding the Impact of Mobile Media Use on Child Behavior and Executive Functioning

Children demonstrate increasing early engagement with mobile media facilitated by its portability and interactivity. Parents are known to employ a range of mediation strategies for mobile media use but continue to have limited awareness about the impact of mobile media on their child’s executive functioning. Mobile media use has previously been shown to be negatively correlated with the executive functioning development of a child; however, little is known of how parents approach their child’s mobile media use. This study employed a survey design ( $N=281$ ) to examine how parents access information related to mobile media and document their perspectives about the impact of mobile media on their child’s behavior and executive functioning. Correlational analyses and cooccurrence graphs showed that parents implement several mediation strategies but rarely access guidelines on mobile media use. A confirmatory factor analysis examined the model fit for four latent constructs of the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF®), which included the Inhibit, Emotional Control, Initiate, and Working Memory scales. Structural equation modelling substantiated the association between parental perception of negative impacts of mobile media related to their child’s behavior, academics, and/or attention and a lower observed executive functioning. Overall, these findings suggest that parents recognize the negative impacts of mobile media on their child’s behavior, and this is associated with how they see the development of their child’s executive functioning. The results emphasize the importance of educating parents as to the role of mobile media in shaping their child’s behavior and associated executive functions.

Associations between touchscreen exposure and hot and cool inhibitory control in 10-month-old infants

Touchscreen use amongst young children has proliferated in recent years, yet little is known about the association between daily touchscreen exposure and inhibitory control in the first year of life. Previous research has found a negative association between the amount of television viewing and inhibitory control in early childhood, but it is unclear whether negative associations with screen use extend to touchscreens. The current study presents an exploratory analysis of the cross-sectional associations between inhibitory control and the amount of touchscreen use amongst 10-month-olds (n = 128-156). Touchscreen exposure was assessed via parent-report. In order to include a range of "hot" and "cool" aspects of inhibitory control, these skills were assessed using lab-based response inhibition and prohibition tasks as well as parent-reported observations of infants' inhibitory control abilities and broader regulatory behaviors. A "Cognitive Executive Function (EEFQ-CEF)" score (encompassing Inhibitory Control, Flexibility, and Working Memory items) was included as a secondary broader executive function construct to examine whether effects showed specificity to inhibitory control rather than executive functions more generally. Correlation analyses indicated no association between touchscreen exposure and the four indices of IC. However, a positive association was found for the amount of touchscreen exposure and EEFQ-CEF once accounting for sociodemographic variables. The implications of these findings and future directions are discussed.

Prenatal mother-father cortisol linkage predicts infant executive functions at 24 months

The present study investigated associations between prenatal mother-father cortisol linkage and infant executive functions. Data come from an international sample (N = 358) of predominantly white and middle- to upper-class first-time parents. During late pregnancy, parents collected diurnal salivary cortisol samples and reported on levels of psychological stress. At 24 months, children completed a battery of executive function tasks. Parent cortisol linkage was operationalized as the time-dependent, within-dyad association between maternal and paternal diurnal cortisol. Results indicated that prenatal linkage was positively related to infant executive functions, suggesting that stronger mother-father cortisol linkage was associated with higher executive function scores. Additionally, this relation was moderated by paternal average cortisol levels such that executive function scores were lower when fathers had higher average cortisol levels and linkage was weak. This association suggests that elevated paternal cortisol amplifies the negative relation between lower cortisol linkage and lower infant executive function scores. Importantly, these findings were observed while controlling for observational measures of caregiving and self-report measures of psychosocial functioning and infant social-emotional behavior. These results suggest that prenatal linkage of mother's and father's stress physiology plays a potentially important part in programming and regulating infant neurocognitive development.

Selective Attention and Concentration Are Related to Lifestyle in Chilean Schoolchildren

The objective of this investigation was to determine the association between selective attention and concentration with physical fitness (i.e., cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), V˙O_2max, the standing long jump test (SLJ) and handgrip muscle strength (HGS)), lifestyle parameters (i.e., physical activity (PA) level, screen time (ST), sleep duration and food habits) and anthropometric measures (i.e., body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC)) among Chilean schoolchildren. Two hundred and forty-eight schoolchildren (137 boys, 111 girls, 11.80 ± 1.17 and 11.58 ± 1.09 years, respectively) participated. Selective attention, concentration and lifestyle (PA, ST, sleep duration and Mediterranean diet (MD) adherence) were determined using a standard questionnaire. CRF, SLJ, HGS and anthropometric indicators (BMI and WC) were also measured. Selective attention showed a positive association with MD adherence score (β; 5.012, p = p < 0.05). Concentration was linked inversely to ST (β; −5.498, p = p < 0.05). Likewise, concentration presented a positive association with MD adherence (β; 2.904, p = p < 0.05). In conclusion, children’s lifestyles are related to the selective attention and concentration of children; therefore, promoting healthy habits could be a cost-effective strategy in the promotion of cognitive development, as it relates to selective attention and concentration.

Prolonged Screen Exposure During COVID-19-The Brain Development and Well-Being Concerns of Our Younger Generation

COVID-19 is a significant public health crisis and it has given a major impact especially in the field of education. The situation has forced educators around the world to shift to an online mode of teaching and children are forced to study online at home. The benefits of online learning are undeniable, but the possible long-term developmental risks of prolonged screen use should not be overlooked. Recent research findings have clearly suggested the negative effects of screen time on the brain development and well-being of our younger generation. Considering the possible long-term developmental risks of prolonged screen use, policy makers should consider appropriate public health policy (e.g., recommendations on screen time) and guideline for the implementations of online learning (e.g., allowing flexibility to suit individual needs). Multidisciplinary collaboration between policy makers, health care professionals, schools, and parents is required to rethink the current situation before it is too late.

Screens across the pond: Findings from longitudinal screen time research in the US and UK

Digital media are increasingly pervasive in the lives of young children. This increase in the availability of digital media might have long-run implications for child development; however, it is too soon to definitively conclude the direction of effects. In part due to this lack of certainty, leading health organizations have chosen to make different recommendations to parents of young children: Many international health organizations (e.g., the American Academy of Pediatrics, World Health Organization) recommend very young children be limited to under one hour of screen time daily, whereas others (e.g., Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health) have intentionally opted not to make recommendations about specific limits. These guidelines might contribute to parents in different countries making meaningfully different choices about children's use of digital media. Using a sample of N = 303 families recruited in Cambridgeshire, England and New York City prior to the birth of couples' first child, we explore predictors of digital media use across the first two years of life. Data were collected when children were 4, 14, and 24 months of age. Results of latent growth curve analyses show that generally, children spend more time engaging with digital media as they grow older; however, growth mixture models reveal most children fit into one of two classes: One group of children (High Media Users; 52.2 %) engages with a substantial amount of digital media, whereas the other (Low Media Users; 48.8 %) engages with relatively little. Children in the US were approximately 30 % more likely to be in the Low Media Users group and there were no differences in group membership on the basis of parents' psychosocial wellbeing. While these differences could be due to a number of factors, these findings may reflect the power of pediatric recommendations.