The reality of virtual reality

User Experience of Virtual Human and Immersive Virtual Reality Role-Playing in Psychological Testing and Assessment: A Case Study of 'EmpathyVR'

Recent immersive virtual reality (IVR) technologies provide users with an enhanced sense of spatial and social presence by integrating various modern technologies into virtual spaces and virtual humans (VHs). Researchers and practitioners in psychology are attempting to understand the psychological processes underlying human behavior by allowing users to engage in realistic experiences within illusions enabled by IVR technologies. This study examined the user experience of role-playing with VHs in the context of IVR-based psychological testing and assessment (PTA) with a focus on EmpathyVR, an IVR-based empathy-type assessment tool developed in an interdisciplinary project. This study aimed to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of integrating IVR-based role-playing with VHs into PTA by examining user immersion, embodiment, and satisfaction. A mixed-method approach was used to collect data from 99 Korean adolescents. While the participants reported high levels of immersion and satisfaction, the sense of embodiment varied across the correspondents, suggesting that users may have had disparate experiences in terms of their connection to the virtual body. This study highlights the potential of IVR-based role-playing with VHs to enhance PTA, particularly in empathy-related assessments, while underscoring areas for improvement in user adaptation and VH realism. The results suggest that IVR experiences based on role-playing with VHs may be feasible for PTA to advance user experience and engagement.

Comparative analysis of early visual processes across presentation modalities: The event-related potential evoked by real-life, virtual reality, and planar objects

Characteristics of real-life objects, such as binocular depth, potentially yield visual processes going beyond what examinations of planar pictures as experimental cues can reveal. While virtual reality (VR) is used to approximate real-life features in experimental settings, this approach fundamentally hinges on whether the distinct modalities are processed in a similar way. To examine which stages of early visual processing depend on modality-specific characteristics, our study compares the electrophysiological responses to 2D (PC), VR, and real-life (RL) objects. To this end, participants passively explored abstract objects in one of these modalities followed by active exploration in a delayed matching-to-sample-task. Our results indicate that all modalities fundamentally yield comparable visual processes. Remarkably, our RL setup evoked the P1-N1-P2 complex corresponding to the well-established ERP morphology. However, the magnitude of the ERP response during real-life visual processing was more comparable to the response to VR than to PC. Indicating effects of stereoscopy on the earliest processing stages, the P1 differentiated only between PC and RL, and the N1 differentiated PC from both other conditions. In contrast, the P2 distinguished VR from both other conditions, which potentially indicated stereoscopic visual fatigue. Complementary analysis of the alpha-band response revealed higher attentional demands in response to PC and VR compared with RL, ruling out that the ERP-based results are exclusively driven by attentional effects. Whereas comparable fundamental processes are likely occurring under all modalities, our study advises the use of VR if the processes' magnitude is of relevance, emphasizing its value to approximate real-life visual processing.

Brainwave Activity Localization, Mood Symptoms, and Balance Impairment in a Male South African Rugby Player With Persisting Symptoms After Concussion: A Case Report

The case sets the foundation for clinical protocols to incorporate mobile EEG and qEEG techniques, instrumental balance testing, and mood symptom screening in athletes who have suffered a sports-related concussion. The protocol provides a framework for clinicians to monitor a patient's recovery progress in terms of brainwave activity, general cognition, moods, and motor control. Objective data obtained through the protocol may assist in developing personalized treatment plans, improving follow-up care, and identifying residual brain function deficits that may be missed in standardized clinical exams. Finally, this case highlights a need for more thorough communication and testing procedures that screen for mood symptoms and provide an opportunity for athletes to discuss their mental health after suffering from an SRC.

Visual information processing of 2D, virtual 3D and real-world objects marked by theta band responses: Visuospatial processing and cognitive load as a function of modality

While pictures share global similarities with the real-world objects they depict, the latter have unique characteristics going beyond 2D representations. Due to its three-dimensional presentation mode, Virtual Reality (VR) is increasingly used to further approach real-world visual processing, yet it remains unresolved to what extent VR yields process comparable to real-world processes. Consequently, our study examined visuospatial processing by a triangular comparison of 2D objects, virtual 3D objects and real 3D objects. The theta band response (TBR) was analysed as an electrophysiological correlate of visual processing, allowing for the differentiation of predominantly stimulus-driven processes mirrored in the evoked response and internal, complex processing reflected in the induced response. Our results indicate that the differences between conditions driven by sensory features go beyond a binary division into 2D and 3D materials but are based on further sensory features: The evoked posterior TBR differentiated between all conditions but revealed fewer differences between processing of real-world and VR objects. Moreover, the induced midfrontal TBR indicated higher cognitive load for 2D objects compared to VR and real-world objects, while no difference between both latter conditions was revealed. In conclusion, our results demonstrate that the transferability of 2D- and VR-based findings to real-world processes depends to some degree on whether predominantly sensory stimulus features or higher cognitive processes are examined. Yet although VR and real-world processes are not to be equated based on our results, their comparison yielded fewer significant differences relative to the PC condition, advising the use of VR to examine visuospatial processing.

A comparative analysis of face and object perception in 2D laboratory and virtual reality settings: insights from induced oscillatory responses

In psychophysiological research, the use of Virtual Reality (VR) for stimulus presentation allows for the investigation of how perceptual processing adapts to varying degrees of realism. Previous time-domain studies have shown that perceptual processing involves modality-specific neural mechanisms, as evidenced by distinct stimulus-locked components. Analyzing induced oscillations across different frequency bands can provide further insights into neural processes that are not strictly phase-locked to stimulus onset. This study uses a simple perceptual paradigm presenting images of faces and cars on both a standard 2D monitor and in an immersive VR environment. To investigate potential modality-dependent differences in attention, cognitive load, and task-related post-movement processing, the induced alpha, theta and beta band responses are compared between the two modalities. No evidence was found for differences in stimulus-dependent attention or task-related post-movement processing between the 2D conditions and the realistic virtual conditions in electrode space, as posterior alpha suppression and re-synchronization of centro-parietal beta did not differ between conditions. However, source analysis revealed differences in the attention networks engaged during 2D and 3D perception. Midfrontal theta was significantly stronger in laboratory conditions, indicating higher cognitive load than in the VR environment. Exploratory analysis of posterior theta showed stronger responses in VR, possibly reflecting the processing of depth information provided only by the 3D material. In addition, the theta response seems to be generated by distinct neuronal sources under realistic virtual conditions indicating enhanced involvement of semantic information processing and social cognition.

Unanticipated evolution of cardio-respiratory interactions with cognitive load during a Go-NoGo shooting task in virtual reality

The cardiovascular system interacts continuously with the respiratory system to maintain the vital balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in our body. The interplay between the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system regulates the aforesaid involuntary functions. This study analyzes the dynamics of the cardio-respiratory (CR) interactions using RR Intervals (RRI), Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP), and Respiration signals after first-order differencing to make them stationary. It investigates their variation with cognitive load induced by a virtual reality (VR) based Go-NoGo shooting task with low and high levels of task difficulty. We use Pearson's correlation-based linear and mutual information-based nonlinear measures of association to indicate the reduction in RRI-SBP and RRI-Respiration interactions with cognitive load. However, no linear correlation difference was observed in SBP-Respiration interactions with cognitive load, but their mutual information increased. A couple of open-loop autoregressive models with exogenous input (ARX) are estimated using RRI and SBP, and one closed-loop ARX model is estimated using RRI, SBP, and Respiration. The impulse responses (IRs) are derived for each input-output pair, and a reduction in the positive and negative peak amplitude of all the IRs is observed with cognitive load. Some novel parameters are derived by representing the IR as a double exponential curve with cosine modulation and show significant differences with cognitive load compared to other measures, especially for the IR between SBP and Respiration.

Neurodivergent students. A continuum of skills with an emphasis on creativity and executive functions

This study analyses Executive Functions (EF) and Creativity among neurodivergent students -including students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Dyslexia, Intellectual Disability (ID), Giftedness-, and a group with Neurotypical development. A sample of 181 secondary school students participated in the study. Creativity was assessed by using the PIC-J test, focusing on verbal and figural components of divergent thinking, while EF were evaluated through Nesplora Ice-Cream, a virtual reality tool assessing flexibility, working memory, and inhibition. Results showed statistically significant differences in Verbal Creativity, especially in Originality: students with ADHD outperformed their Neurotypical peers, while those with ID showed the lowest scores. Although no statistically significant differences emerged in Figural Creativity, students with ADHD showed the lowest scores in Elaboration or Figural details, whereas those with Dyslexia exhibited high levels of Figural Originality, similar to their Neurotypical peers. Concerning EF, students with ID had the highest scores in Interference and Perseveration, indicating poorer Flexibility. In contrast, Gifted students performed better than the other groups in Working Memory, while students with ADHD did not exhibit special difficulties in EF. These findings emphasize the importance of personalized interventions for Neurodivergent students, that recognize and capitalize on their unique strengths while addressing specific challenges.

SHAP value-based ERP analysis (SHERPA): Increasing the sensitivity of EEG signals with explainable AI methods

Conventionally, event-related potential (ERP) analysis relies on the researcher to identify the sensors and time points where an effect is expected. However, this approach is prone to bias and may limit the ability to detect unexpected effects or to investigate the full range of the electroencephalography (EEG) signal. Data-driven approaches circumvent this limitation, however, the multiple comparison problem and the statistical correction thereof affect both the sensitivity and specificity of the analysis. In this study, we present SHERPA - a novel approach based on explainable artificial intelligence (XAI) designed to provide the researcher with a straightforward and objective method to find relevant latency ranges and electrodes. SHERPA is comprised of a convolutional neural network (CNN) for classifying the conditions of the experiment and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) as a post hoc explainer to identify the important temporal and spatial features. A classical EEG face perception experiment is employed to validate the approach by comparing it to the established researcher- and data-driven approaches. Likewise, SHERPA identified an occipital cluster close to the temporal coordinates for the N170 effect expected. Most importantly, SHERPA allows quantifying the relevance of an ERP for a psychological mechanism by calculating an "importance score". Hence, SHERPA suggests the presence of a negative selection process at the early and later stages of processing. In conclusion, our new method not only offers an analysis approach suitable in situations with limited prior knowledge of the effect in question but also an increased sensitivity capable of distinguishing neural processes with high precision.

Current opportunities and challenges of immersive virtual reality for psychological research and application

Immersive virtual reality (iVR), that is, digital stereoscopic 360° scenarios usually presented in head-mounted displays, has gained much popularity in medical, educational, and consumer contexts in the last years. Recently, psychological research started to utilize the theoretical and methodological advantages of iVR. Furthermore, understanding cognitive, emotional, and behavioral processes in iVR similar to real-life is a genuinely psychological, currently understudied topic. This article briefly reviews the current application of iVR in psychological research and related disciplines. The review presents empirical evidence for opportunities and strengths (e.g., realism, experimental control, effectiveness of therapeutic and educational interventions) as well as challenges and weaknesses (e.g., differences in experiencing presence, interacting with VR content including avatars, i.e., graphical representation of a person). The main part discusses areas requiring additional basic research, such as cognitive processes, socio-emotional processes during social interactions in iVR, and possible societal implications (e.g., fraud, VR-addiction). For both research and application, iVR offers a contemporary extension of the psychological toolkit, offering new avenues to investigate and enhance core phenomena of psychology such as cognition, affect, motivation, and behavior. Still, it is crucial to exercise caution in its application as excessive and careless use of iVR can pose risks to individuals' mental and physical well-being.

The presence of fear: How subjective fear, not physiological changes, shapes the experience of presence

When we become engrossed in novels, films, games, or even our own wandering thoughts, we can feel present in a reality distinct from the real world. Although this subjective sense of presence is, presumably, a ubiquitous aspect of conscious experience, the mechanisms that produce it are unknown. Correlational studies conducted in virtual reality have shown that we feel more present when we are afraid, motivating claims that physiological changes contribute to presence; however, such causal claims remain to be evaluated. Here, we report two experiments that test the causal role of subjective and physiological components of fear (i.e., activation of the sympathetic nervous system) in generating presence. In Study 1, we validated a virtual reality simulation capable of inducing fear. Participants rated their emotions while they crossed a wooden plank that appeared to be suspended above a city street; at the same time, we recorded heart rate and skin conductance levels. Height exposure increased ratings of fear, presence, and both measures of sympathetic activation. Although presence and fear ratings were correlated during height exposure, presence and sympathetic activation were unrelated. In Study 2, we manipulated whether the plank appeared at height or at ground level. We also captured participants' movements, which revealed that alongside increases in subjective fear, presence, and sympathetic activation, participants also moved more slowly at height relative to controls. Using a mediational approach, we found that the relationship between height exposure and presence on the plank was fully mediated by self-reported fear, and not by sympathetic activation. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Electrophysiological correlates of face and object perception: A comparative analysis of 2D laboratory and virtual reality conditions

Human face perception is a specialized visual process with inherent social significance. The neural mechanisms reflecting this intricate cognitive process have evolved in spatially complex and emotionally rich environments. Previous research using VR to transfer an established face perception paradigm to realistic conditions has shown that the functional properties of face-sensitive neural correlates typically observed in the laboratory are attenuated outside the original modality. The present study builds on these results by comparing the perception of persons and objects under conventional laboratory (PC) and realistic conditions in VR. Adhering to established paradigms, the PC- and VR modalities both featured images of persons and cars alongside standard control images. To investigate the individual stages of realistic face processing, response times, the typical face-sensitive N170 component, and relevant subsequent components (L1, L2; pre-, post-response) were analyzed within and between modalities. The between-modality comparison of response times and component latencies revealed generally faster processing under realistic conditions. However, the obtained N170 latency and amplitude differences showed reduced discriminative capacity under realistic conditions during this early stage. These findings suggest that the effects commonly observed in the lab are specific to monitor-based presentations. Analyses of later and response-locked components showed specific neural mechanisms for identification and evaluation are employed when perceiving the stimuli under realistic conditions, reflected in discernible amplitude differences in response to faces and objects beyond the basic perceptual features. Conversely, the results do not provide evidence for comparable stimulus-specific perceptual processing pathways when viewing pictures of the stimuli under conventional laboratory conditions.

Therapist perspectives on telehealth-based virtual reality exposure therapy

Virtual reality (VR) can enhance mental health care. In particular, the effectiveness of VR-based exposure therapy (VRET) has been well-demonstrated for treatment of anxiety disorders. However, most applications of VRET remain localized to clinic spaces. We aimed to explore mental health therapists' perceptions of telehealth-based VRET (tele-VRET) by conducting semi-structured, qualitative interviews with 18 telemental health therapists between October and December 2022. Interview topics included telehealth experiences, exposure therapy over telehealth, previous experiences with VR, and perspectives on tele-VRET. Therapists described how telehealth reduced barriers (88.9%, 16/18), enhanced therapy (61.1%, 11/18), and improved access to clients (38.9%, 7/18), but entailed problems with technology (61.1%, 11/18), uncontrolled settings (55.6%, 10/18), and communication difficulties (50%, 9/18). Therapists adapted exposure therapy to telehealth by using online resources (66.7%, 12/18), preparing client expectations (55.6%, 10/18), and adjusting workflows (27.8%, 5/18). Most therapists had used VR before (72.2%, 13/18) and had positive impressions of VR (55.6%, 10/18), but none had used VR clinically. In response to tele-VRET, therapists requested interactive session activities (77.8%, 14/18) and customizable interventions components (55.6%, 10/18). Concerns about tele-VRET included risks with certain clients (77.8%, 14/18), costs (50%, 9/18), side effects and privacy (22.2%, 4/18), and inappropriateness for specific forms of exposure therapy (16.7%, 3/18). These results reveal how combining telehealth and VRET may expand therapeutic options for mental healthcare providers and can help inform collaborative development of immersive health technologies.

Induced oscillatory brain responses under virtual reality conditions in the context of repetition priming

In the human electroencephalogram (EEG), induced oscillatory responses in various frequency bands are regarded as valuable indices to examine the neural mechanisms underlying human memory. While the advent of virtual reality (VR) drives the investigation of mnemonic processing under more lifelike settings, the joint application of VR and EEG methods is still in its infancy (e.g., due to technical limitations impeding the signal acquisition). The objective of the present EEG study was twofold. First, we examined whether the investigation of induced oscillations under VR conditions yields equivalent results compared to standard paradigms. Second, we aimed at obtaining further insights into basic memory-related brain mechanisms in VR. To these ends, we relied on a standard implicit memory design, namely repetition priming, for which the to-be-expected effects are well-documented for conventional studies. Congruently, we replicated a suppression of the evoked potential after stimulus onset. Regarding the induced responses, we observed a modulation of induced alphaband in response to a repeated stimulus. Importantly, our results revealed a repetition-related suppression of the high-frequency induced gammaband response (>30 Hz), indicating the sharpening of a cortical object representation fostering behavioral priming effects. Noteworthy, the analysis of the induced gammaband responses required a number of measures to minimize the influence of external and internal sources of artefacts (i.e., the electrical shielding of the technical equipment and the control for miniature eye movements). In conclusion, joint VR-EEG studies with a particular focus on induced oscillatory responses offer a promising advanced understanding of mnemonic processing under lifelike conditions.

Proposing immersive virtual reality scenarios for validating verbal content analysis methods in adult samples

Verbal content analyses to differentiate truthful and fabricated statements, such as the Criteria-Based Content Analysis (CBCA), are used in lie detection research as well as in practice to assess the credibility of statements in criminal court proceedings. Meta-analyses demonstrate validity of verbal content analyses above chance, but the traditional research paradigms usually lack either ecological or internal validity. The authors discuss the usage of immersive virtual reality scenarios to solve this dilemma, as both types of validity can be increased by this approach. In this integrative review of existing literature on the current use of virtual scenarios in forensic and victimology research, the authors extract strengths and limitations for possible VR studies in the context of verbal content analysis. Furthermore, novel ethical challenges involved are summarized and implications for future studies proposed. Overall, we argue in favor of using virtual reality scenarios to validate methods for verbal content analysis, but also urge to consider ethical limitations regarding unwanted short- and long-term aftereffects.

Confirmation of the viability of a metaverse yoga class and investigation into the impact on pain, anxiety, and depression associated with low back pain after engaging in virtual yoga sessions

This study aimed to explore the influence of metaverse technology (MT) factors like presence, usability, and enjoyment on patients' satisfaction, with a focus on examining potential mediating effects. In addition, it sought to assess whether the yoga practice as an intervention therapy in MT induces changes in the pain, anxiety, and depression levels of patients experiencing back pain. From the pool of 202 participants, this study chose participants who had reported enduring low back pain over 12 weeks, with a visual analogue scale (VAS) rating of 4 or higher. After completing the questionnaire, patients were randomly assigned to either the control group (COG, n=100) or the yoga exercise group (YEG, n=99). Results showed that the construct validity for questionnaires and a reasonable model fit were confirmed, and that presence showed a statistically significant effect on psychological satisfaction via the mediating path of enjoyment (β=0.592, P=0.001). Following 8 weeks of the yoga practice, the VAS increased for the COG, while it decreased significantly by ~29% for the YEG (P=0.001). YEG also exhibited a decrease in the Oswestry Disability Index by ~17%, anxiety by ~7%, and depression by ~10% (P=0.001). In conclusion, psychological satisfaction in a yoga practice using a metaverse cannot be achieved solely through the sense of presence; enjoyment is necessary for patients' satisfaction. Moreover, it was verified that virtual yoga practice is effective in ameliorating psychological factors resulting from back pain.

Self-Assessed Experience of Emotional Involvement in Sensory Analysis Performed in Virtual Reality

Virtual reality (VR) technology has gained significant attention in various fields, including education for health professionals, sensory science, psychology, and consumer research. The first aim of the paper is to explore the self-assessed experience of emotional involvement in sensory analysis performed in VR. The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is a widely used self-report measure that assesses positive and negative affective states. VR sensory analysis involves the use of immersive, interactive, and multi-sensory environments to evaluate sensory perception and emotional responses. By synthesizing relevant literature, this paper provides insights into the impact of VR on affective states, the effectiveness of VR in eliciting emotions, and the potential applications of the PANAS in VR sensory analysis. Furthermore, the second aim of the paper is to uncover the effect of VR sensory evaluation on the participant's emotional states, as it has a significant effect on their evaluations. The results suggest an increase in the sum of positive effects and a decrease in the negative ones. Although these results are promising, the relationship between the PANAS and VR sensory analysis is still underexplored, with limited research investigating the specific effects of VR on affective states measured using the PANAS. Further research is needed to better understand the potential of the PANAS in assessing emotional responses in VR environments and its implications for sensory analysis.

Temporal precision and accuracy of audio-visual stimuli in mixed reality systems

Mixed Reality (MR) techniques, such as Virtual (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR), are gaining popularity as a new methodology for neuroscience and psychology research. In studies involving audiovisual stimuli, it is crucial to have MR systems that can deliver these bimodal stimuli with controlled timing between the onset of each modality. However, the extent to which modern MR setups can achieve the necessary precision and accuracy of audiovisual stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) remains largely unknown. The objective of this study is to systematically evaluate the lag and variability between the auditory and visual onset of audiovisual stimuli produced on popular modern MR head-mounted displays (HMDs) from Meta, Microsoft, HTC, and Varjo in conjunction with commonly used development environments such as Unity and the Unreal Engine. To accomplish this, we developed a low-cost measurement system that enabled us to measure the actual SOA and its associated jitter. Our findings revealed that certain MR systems exhibited significant SOAs, with one case averaging 156.63 ms, along with jitter of up to ±11.82 ms. Using our methodology, we successfully conducted experimental calibration of a headset, achieving SOAs of -3.89 ± 1.56 ms. This paper aims to raise awareness among neuroscience researchers regarding the limitations of MR systems in delivering audiovisual stimuli without prior calibration. Furthermore, we present cost-effective methods to calibrate these systems, thereby facilitating the replication of future results.

Virtual vs. real: exploring perceptual, cognitive and affective dimensions in design product experiences

BACKGROUND

Virtual Reality (VR) has already emerged as an effective instrument for simulating realistic interactions, across various domains. In the field of User Experience (UX), VR has been used to create prototypes of real-world products. Here, the question is to what extent the users' experience of a virtual prototype can be equivalent to that of its real counterpart (the real product). This issue particularly concerns the perceptual, cognitive and affective dimensions of users' experiences.

METHODS

This exploratory study aims to address this issue by comparing the users' experience of a well-known product, i.e., the Graziella bicycle, presented either in Sumerian or Sansar VR platform, or in a physical setting. Participants' Emotional Engagement, Sense of Presence, Immersion, and Perceived Product Quality were evaluated after being exposed to the product in all conditions (i.e., Sumerian, Sansar and Physical).

RESULTS

The findings indicated significantly higher levels of Engagement and Positive Affect in the virtual experiences when compared to their real-world counterparts. Additionally, the sole notable distinction among the VR platforms was observed in terms of Realism.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests the feasibility and potential of immersive VR environments as UX evaluation tools and underscores their effectiveness in replicating genuine real-world experiences.

Therapist perspectives on telehealth-based virtual reality exposure therapy

Virtual reality (VR) can enhance mental health care. In particular, the effectiveness of VR-based exposure therapy (VRET) has been well-demonstrated for treatment of anxiety disorders. However, most applications of VRET remain localized to clinic spaces. We aimed to explore mental health therapists' perceptions of telehealth-based VRET (tele-VRET) by conducting semi-structured, qualitative interviews with 18 telemental health therapists between October and December 2022. Interview topics included telehealth experiences, exposure therapy over telehealth, perceptions of VR in therapy, and perspectives on tele-VRET. Therapists described how telehealth reduced barriers (88.9%, 16/18), enhanced therapy (61.1%, 11/18), and improved access to clients (38.9%, 7/18), but entailed problems with technology (61.1%, 11/18), uncontrolled settings (55.6%, 10/18), and communication di culties (50%, 9/18). Therapists adapted exposure therapy to telehealth by using online resources (66.7%, 12/18), preparing client expectations (55.6%, 10/18), and adjusting workflows (27.8%, 5/18). Most therapists had used VR before (72.2%, 13/18) and had positive impressions (55.6%, 10/18), but none had used VR clinically. In response to tele-VRET, therapists requested interactive session activities (77.8%, 14/18) and customizable interventions components (55.6%, 10/18). Concerns about tele-VRET included risks with certain clients (77.8%, 14/18), costs (50%, 9/18), side effects and privacy (22.2%, 4/18), and inappropriateness for specific forms of exposure therapy (16.7%, 3/18). These results show how designing for telehealth may extend VRET and can help inform collaborative development of health technologies.

Real-life relevant face perception is not captured by the N170 but reflected in later potentials: A comparison of 2D and virtual reality stimuli

The perception of faces is one of the most specialized visual processes in the human brain and has been investigated by means of the early event-related potential component N170. However, face perception has mostly been studied in the conventional laboratory, i.e., monitor setups, offering rather distal presentation of faces as planar 2D-images. Increasing spatial proximity through Virtual Reality (VR) allows to present 3D, real-life-sized persons at personal distance to participants, thus creating a feeling of social involvement and adding a self-relevant value to the presented faces. The present study compared the perception of persons under conventional laboratory conditions (PC) with realistic conditions in VR. Paralleling standard designs, pictures of unknown persons and standard control images were presented in a PC- and a VR-modality. To investigate how the mechanisms of face perception differ under realistic conditions from those under conventional laboratory conditions, the typical face-specific N170 and subsequent components were analyzed in both modalities. Consistent with previous laboratory research, the N170 lost discriminatory power when translated to realistic conditions, as it only discriminated faces and controls under laboratory conditions. Most interestingly, analysis of the later component [230–420 ms] revealed more differentiated face-specific processing in VR, as indicated by distinctive, stimulus-specific topographies. Complemented by source analysis, the results on later latencies show that face-specific neural mechanisms are applied only under realistic conditions (A video abstract is available in the Supplementary material and via YouTube: https://youtu.be/TF8wiPUrpSY).