Post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among people who experienced traumatic events in Dessie town, Ethiopia, 2022: A community based study

Effects of altered neurotransmitter Glu and GABA on post-traumatic stress disorder in rats

OBJECTIVE

Investigate the role of changes in glutamic acid (Glu), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and imbalances in Glu-to-GABA ratio (GGR) in the pathogenesis of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

METHODS

Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to four groups: control, PTSD, PTSD+monosodium glutamate (MSG), and PTSD+lamotrigine (LTG). The PTSD model was established using the single prolonged stress (SPS) method. Rats in the PTSD+MSG and PTSD+LTG groups received MSG and LTG via gavage, respectively. At weeks 1, 2, and 4 after successful PTSD modeling, the Morris water maze (MWM) test and open field test (OFT) were conducted. Concurrently, serum concentrations of corticosterone (CORT), epinephrine, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), Glu, and GABA were measured. Moreover, the changes of Glu, GABA and Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CAMK II) in the hippocampus were also determined.

RESULTS

In the PTSD+MSG group, the GGR in both serum and hippocampus was elevated, whereas in the PTSD+LTG group, it was decreased. In the PTSD+LTG group, the content of CAMK II in the hippocampal tissue of rats was significantly increased (p < 0.01), while serum CORT and BDNF levels were reduced (p < 0.05). The change of GGR can affect the learning and spatial memory abilities, the level of spontaneous activity and the blood biochemical indexes of rats with PTSD.

CONCLUSION

Significant alterations in the GGR reflect neurotransmitter imbalances, which can influence the pathophysiology of PTSD. Targeted neurotransmitter supplementation or antagonistic therapies may help alleviate PTSD symptoms.

Displacement-related stressors in a Sudanese war-affected community; identifying the impact of war exposure and ongoing stressors on trauma symptom severity: a national multi-center cross-sectional study

INTRODUCTION

The ongoing armed conflict in Sudan that started April 2023 resulted in over 8 millions internally displaced persons (IDPs), in addition to the already previously displaced 3.8 millions. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the most documented mental health problems among IDPs. Additionally, factors such as personal safety concerns and financial losses have been identified as potential stressors contributing to the development of PTSD. Our study aimed to understand the relationship between displacement-related stressors and trauma symptom severity.

METHODS

This was an observational, multi-center cross-sectional study conducted across seven conflict-free states in Sudan. A pre-tested questionnaire assessing the displacement stressors and the Harvard trauma questionnaire (HTQ) were used to collect the data through face-to-face interviews. The data analysis was conducted using R software. A structural equation model was generated to visualize the comprehensive relationship between the study variables.

RESULTS

Most of the participants (N = 1470) were females (81.4%), married (63.9%), employed (42.5%), Muslims (93.0%) and previously displaced (54.1%), with a mean age of (35.25 ± 13.92) years old. The prevalence of PTSD was (34.5%) and it was significantly associated with gender (P = 0.003), religion (P < 0.001), level of education (P = 0.031), and number of displacements (P = 0.005). Personal safety concerns, financial loss and hardship, and personal hardships were positively correlated with PTSD symptoms severity. War exposure losses were negatively correlated with the severity of PTSD symptoms.

CONCLUSION

The strong association between PTSD symptoms and personal safety concerns, financial loss and hardship, and personal hardships emphasizes the urgent need for targeted mental health interventions that could mitigate the impact of PTSD in Sudanese communities.

Prevalence and associated factors of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder among trauma patients: multi-centered cross-sectional study

Background

Stress-related disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), are expected to be the leading cause of global mortality and morbidity by 2030. However, there is limited information on the prevalence of depression and PTSD among trauma patients in Ethiopia. Our study was aimed at determining the prevalence of depression and PTSD and factors affecting it among trauma patients.

Methods

A hospital-based, multi-centered, cross-sectional study was conducted among 621 patients who visited the trauma outpatient clinic from April to June 2023. The stratified random sampling technique was used to select participants. Data were collected using standardized and pretested structured questionnaires and face-to-face interviews. Post-traumatic stress disorder was measured by the posttraumatic stress disorder checklist for DSM-5 (PCL-5), and depression was assessed by the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). Data were analyzed using STATA version 14.1. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine the association between outcome and independent variables. P-values less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.

Results

In this study, 621 study participants were involved, with a response rate of 100%. More than half (55%) of the participants were male. The participants' median age was 32 years, and the interquartile range (IQR) ranged from 25 to 43 years. The prevalence of depression was 35.4% (95% CI: 31.65-39.2), and the prevalence of PTSD was 14.2% (95% CI: 11.4-16.9). In multivariable analysis, being female (AOR = 1.58, 95% CI: 1.05-2.35), having no formal education (AOR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.01- 2.85), having a low income (AOR = 4.5, 95% CI: 1.93-10.70), and having poor social Support (AOR=2.04, 95% CI 1.34-3.10) and multiple traumatic events (AOR=7.2, 95% CI: 4.1-12.7) were significant predictors of depression. For post-traumatic stress disorder, being female (AOR=2.7, 95% CI 1.46-5.06), no formal education (AOR=2.61, 95% CI: 1.25-5.46), urban residency (AOR=2.11, 95% CI: 1.14-3.90), having depression (AOR=7.01, 95% CI: 3.65-13.46), and multiple traumatic events (AOR=8.08, 95% CI: 2.83-23.14) were the associated factors identified.

Conclusion and recommendation

The study revealed high levels of depression and post- traumatic stress disorder among trauma patients. Targeted interventions addressing socio-demographic disparities, such as income and education levels, alongside psychosocial support, are imperative.

Depression, anxiety and its predictor among internally displaced person in metekel Ethiopia, 2023: using a structural equation model

Introduction

These individuals face psychological and physical trauma, loss of jobs, and emotional isolation, which may lead to the development of depression and anxiety. In 2022, 120 countries had over 71 million IDPs, a 20% increase from the previous year. In sub-Saharan Africa, natural disasters accounted for 40% of all new IDPs worldwide.

Method

An institutional-based cross-sectional study was conducted in Ethiopia. A systematic random sampling method was used to select 997 respondents. Data were collected using a structured interview questionnaire. STATA Version 17 and Amos Version 21 were used for the analysis. Descriptive statistics were summarized using frequency, percentage, table, graph, chart, figure, and summary statistics. Structural equation modeling was employed to assess the relationship.

Result

The overall prevalence of depression and anxiety was 79.64% (95% CI: 77.02 82.03) and 74.62% (95% CI =71.83%, 77.23%) respectively. age (adjusted β = 0.0034, 95% CI: 0.0012, 0.0056), history of the death of a loved one (adjusted β = 0.132, 95% CI: 0.0803, 0.185), had formal education (β = -0.164, 95% CI: -0.229, -0.098) occupation other (adjusted β = -0.183, 95% CI: -0.261, -0.105), Not having medically confirmed mental illness (adjusted β = -0.185, 95% CI: (-0.325, -0.045), PTSD score (adjusted β = 0.0082, 95% CI: 0.0048, 0.012) associated with anxiety.

Conclusion

Displacement medically confirmed mental illness, death of a loved one, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) significantly impact anxiety. Policymakers should provide greater access to mental health management and prevention services, and medical practitioners should understand the connection between depression and anxiety.

Medical Returnees: Somali Canadians Seeking Psychosocial and Spiritual Care in East Africa

The refugee experience has been associated with increased rates of psychosocial challenges. At the same time, evidence suggests that those who resettled in Western countries including Canada underutilize the formal mental health services in these countries. The low uptake has been attributed to barriers such as language, complexity of the health systems, and differing explanatory models of illness. The same is true for Somali refugees in the West. Studies suggest that Somali refugees prefer spiritual healing for psychosocial illness and that some return to East Africa for such healing. However, little is known about Somali Canadian's experiences with the Canadian mental health services and transnational health seeking. The study aimed to understand psychosocial challenges faced by Somali Canadians, their health seeking behaviors, and service utilization. Because some sought psychosocial services outside the country, fieldwork was conducted in Kenya to provide new evidence on transnational healing services. Ethnographic fieldwork and in-depth interviews were utilized. Thirty-seven interviews of about an hour each were undertaken. Fieldwork in Nairobi focused on spiritual healing centers and medical clinic. The findings reveal important findings regarding psychosocial challenges experienced by participants. It discusses psychosocial illnesses as variedly experienced, challenges with accessing Canadian healthcare services, and seeking culturally appropriate services in East Africa. The study highlights participants and their families struggle with psychosocial distress, the challenges of accessing culturally appropriate services within Canada, the role of spiritual healers and the existence of transnational health seeking practices.

Post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among high school students who experienced war in Woldia town

Background

The experience of war in recent time is very common around the world, and the impact is profound on the mental health of the victims, especially among the young population. The most implicated mental health problem is post-traumatic stress disorder, which comes after an exposure to trauma as a severe and long-term result of the traumatic event. Studies in developed countries revealed this finding, but there is insufficient information in developing countries, where much of war and conflict exist and young population live including Ethiopia. Therefore, this study aims to assess the prevalence and associated factors of post-traumatic stress disorder among high school students who experienced war.

Objective

We assessed the prevalence and factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder among high school students who experienced war.

Methods

A multi-centered school base cross-sectional study was conducted from May 23 to June 08, 2022. Data were collected from high school students in Woldia town. Bivariable and multivariable logistic regression was used to identify the independent factors associated with post-traumatic stress disorder.

Results

A total of 338 of the 410 students participated in this study (94.5% response rate). The prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder was 39.2%. In the multivariable analysis, poor social support (AOR = 3.40, 95% CI: 1.45, 7.95), depression (AOR = 3.24, 95% CI: 1.69,6.21), high level of perceived stress (AOR = 2.98, 95% CI: 1.61, 5.50), being in war fighting situation (AOR = 2.85, 95% CI: 1.40, 5.78), and witnessing the murder of family members or friends (AOR = 3.05, 95% CI: 1.47, 6.32) were factors significantly associated with post-traumatic stress disorder at a p-value <0.05.

Conclusions and recommendations

In this study, around two in five of high school students had post-traumatic stress disorder. Independent factors of PTSD were depression, high stress levels, poor social support, witnessing the murder of family members/friends, and being in war fighting situation. We recommend that the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Health collaborate to integrate mental health services into schools. This focuses on the early detection of students at risk of PTSD, such as those with depression, high perceived stress levels, and exposure to murder or war, and provides necessary social support to prevent PTSD.

Prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and depressive symptoms among civilians residing in armed conflict-affected regions: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Globally, populations afflicted by armed conflict are known to have high rates of mental health disorders.

Aims

This meta-analysis aims to estimate the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms among civilians residing in armed conflict-affected regions.

Methods

This meta-analysis was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. A literature search employing MEDLINE(R), Embase Classic+Embase, APA PsycINFO, Ovid Healthstar, Journal@Ovid Full Text, Cochrane, PTSDpubs and CINAHL was conducted from inception until 19 March 2024 to identify relevant studies. Quality assessment was performed using the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for Prevalence Studies, and a Comprehensive Meta-Analysis was used to conduct the statistical analysis.

Results

The search yielded 38 595 articles, of which 57 were considered eligible for inclusion. The included studies comprised data from 64 596 participants. We estimated a prevalence of 23.70% (95% CI 19.50% to 28.40%) for PTSD symptoms and 25.60% (95% CI 20.70% to 31.10%) for depressive features among war-afflicted civilians. The subgroup analysis based on time since the war and the country's economic status revealed the highest prevalence for both PTSD and depressive symptoms was present during the years of war and in low/middle-income countries.

Conclusions

The results of this study provide conclusive evidence of the detrimental impacts of armed conflict on mental health outcomes. Hence, it is crucial to emphasise the significance of both physical and mental health in the aftermath of war and take appropriate humanistic measures to overcome challenges in the management of psychiatric illnesses.

PROSPERO registration number

CRD42023416096.

Post-traumatic stress disorder in the Ethiopian population dwelling in war-affected communities: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a significant mental health concern globally, particularly prevalent in populations exposed to war and conflict. This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to examine the prevalence and factors associated with PTSD among the Ethiopian population residing in war-affected communities.

Methods

The review was reported according to the PRISMA guidelines. Related eligible published articles were searched in electronic online databases such as PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, Embase, Science Direct, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Google, which reported the prevalence and risk factors of PTSD among people dwelling in the war-affected area until January 2024. The relevant data was extracted using a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet. The meta-analysis was conducted using STATA version 11. The estimated pooled prevalence and risk factors were estimated using a random effect model. The potential risk of publication bias was checked using a funnel plot and Egger's statistical test.

Results

A total of nine published studies with 6107 participants were analyzed in this meta-analysis. The estimated pooled prevalence of PTSD among people living in war-affected areas was 48.4%, with a 95% CI (37.1, 59.8). This study found a higher prevalence of PTSD among women than men. Being female (OR= 2.2, 95% CI: 1.2, 4.3), witnessing a murder of a loved one (OR= 3.0, 95% CI: 1.2, 7.5), depression symptoms (OR= 2.8, 95% CI: 1.4, 5.6), and anxiety symptoms (OR= 3.4, 95% CI: 1.4, 8.0), a close family member killed or seriously injured (OR= 3.1, 95% CI: 1.2, 7.7), a moderate and high perceived threat to life (OR= 3.4, 95% CI: 1.3, 9.1), and poor social support (OR= 4.4, 95% CI: 1.1, 18.7) were associated with post-traumatic stress disorder.

Conclusion

The result of this study shows the high prevalence rate of PTSD in people living in war-affected areas. disparities in PTSD prevalence, with women being at higher risk, and identified risk factors were witnessing the murder of a loved one, experiencing depression and anxiety, and perceived threat to life. Addressing PTSD in war-affected communities requires comprehensive interventions that consider both individual and contextual factors.

Systematic review registration

www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/, identifier CRD42024501384.

Prevalence and associated factors of common mental disorders among internally displaced people by armed conflict in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique: a cross-sectional community-based study

Background

Humanitarian emergencies are a major global health challenge with the potential to have a profound impact on people's mental and psychological health. Displacement is a traumatic event that disrupts families and affects physical and psychological health at all ages. A person may endure or witness a traumatic incident, such as being exposed to war, and, as a result, develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There is a lack of information about post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety disorder in low and middle-income countries in humanitarian emergency contexts such as Mozambique. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of PTSD, depression, and anxiety, and associated factors among armed conflict survivors in Cabo Delgado, north region of Mozambique in 2023.

Methods

A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted between January and April 2023 among 750 participants, who were selected by convenience. A face-to-face interview used the Primary Care Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PC-PTSD-5) to evaluate PTSD, the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale (GAD-7) to evaluate anxiety and the Patient Health Questionnaire - Mozambique (PHQ-9 MZ) to evaluate depression. The association between PTSD and demographic and psychosocial characteristics was analyzed using bivariate and multivariable binary logistic regression. We used a 5% significance level.

Results

The three mental disorders assessed were highly prevalent in our sample with 74.3% PTSD, 63.8% depression, and 40.0% anxiety. The chance of developing PTSD was higher in females (AOR = 2.30, 95% CI 1.50-3.51), in patients with depression symptoms (AOR = 8.27, 95% CI = 4.97-13.74) and anxiety symptoms (AOR = 1.45, 95% CI = 0.84-2.50).

Conclusion

This study reported that the prevalence of PTSD, depression, and anxiety were high. Patients having depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and being female are more at risk of developing PTSD. There is a need to integrate screening for common mental disorders in the context of humanitarian emergencies and its adapted integration of psychosocial interventions.

Post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among internally displaced persons in Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Internally displaced people (IDPs), uprooted by conflict, violence, or disaster, struggle with the trauma of violence, loss, and displacement, making them significantly more vulnerable to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Therefore, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to assess the prevalence and associated factors of PTSD among IDPs in Africa.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of electronic databases was conducted to identify relevant studies published between 2008 and 2023. The search included electronic databases such as PubMed, CABI, EMBASE, SCOPUS, CINHAL, and AJOL, as well as other search sources. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed. Data were extracted using Microsoft Excel, and analysis was performed using STATA 17 software. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the JBI quality appraisal tool. A random-effects model was used to estimate the pooled prevalence of PTSD and its associated factors. The funnel plot and Egger's regression test were used to assess publication bias, and I2 test statistics was used to assess heterogeneity. The protocol for this review has been registered with PROSPERO (ID: CRD42023428027).

RESULTS

A total of 14 studies with a total of 7,590 participants met the inclusion criteria. The pooled prevalence of PTSD among IDPs in Africa was 51% (95% CI: 38.-64). Female gender (OR = 1.99, 95% CI: 1.65-2.32), no longer married (OR = 1.93, 95% CI: 1.43-2.43), unemployment (OR = 1.92, 95% CI: 1.17-2.67), being injured (OR = 1.94, 95% CI: 1.50-1.50), number of traumatic events experienced [4-7(OR = 2.09, 95% CI: 1.16-3.01), 8-11 (OR = 2.09, 95% CI: 2.18-4.12), 12-16 (OR = 5.37, 95% CI: 2.61-8.12)], illness without medical care (OR = 1.92, 95% CI: 1.41-2.29), being depressed (OR = 2.97, 95% CI: 2.07-3.86), and frequency of displacement more than once (OR = 2.13, 95% CI: 1.41-2.85) were significantly associated with an increased risk of PTSD.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this systematic review and meta-analysis highlight the alarming prevalence of PTSD among IDPs in Africa. Female gender, marital status, number of traumatic events, ill health without medical care, depression, and frequency of displacement were identified as significant risk factors for PTSD. Effective interventions and the development of tailored mental health programs are needed to prevent PTSD among IDPs, focusing on the identified risk factors.

Prevalence of mental disorders and psychological trauma among conflict- affected population in Somalia: a cross-sectional study

Background

Despite the longstanding psychosocial impact of the interactable conflict in Somalia for the last 30 years, there is lack of epidemiological studies of mental health conditions, especially at the population level.

Objectives

The aim of this study is to fill the epidemiological gap and provide population based data on mental health conditions in the South-Central region of Somalia. The specific objectives were: (1) To determine the epidemiological patterns of mental disorders in three sites; Baidoa, Dolow and Kismayo, (2) Understand the socio-demographic characteristics associated with mental health conditions in the study sites, and (3) To assess the correlates between psychological trauma and the mental wellbeing of the population.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study of 713 respondents recruited from the three sites namely Dolow, Baidoa and Kismayo. Data on sociodemographic characteristics and mental disorders were collected using the MINI and sociodemographic questionnaire. Basic descriptive statistics were used to summarize sociodemographic characteristics. Univariable and multivariable logistic regressions were used to examine factors associated with common mental disorders. Statistical significance was considered at a value of p <0.05.

Results

Participants' mean age was 32.6 (±10.7) years. More than half (58.5%) of the respondents were male. The overall prevalence of common mental disorders was 557 (78.1%) with panic disorder (39.3%), generalized anxiety disorders (34.9%), major depressive episode current (32.1) and PTSD (29.9%). According to the multivariable logistic regression analysis, being male AOR = 1.74 (95%CI = 1.25, 2.42), having a family size of more than 10 members AOR =1.37 (95% CI = 1.00, 1.89), being unemployed AOR = 1.90 (95%CI = 1.18, 3.06), experienced starvation AOR =3.46 (95%CI = 2.23, 5.37), khat use AOR = 5.87 (955 CI, 1.75-19.65), were identified as predicting factors for the common mental disorders among the study participants.

Conclusion

There is a high prevalence of mental disorders with anxiety disorders being the commonest. Findings reflect earlier studies that showed higher rates in conflict and post-conflict settings. It also aligns with past studies in Somalia. As such, there is an urgent need to integrate mental health and psychosocial support within the primary healthcare and other service sectors such as education considering the vast majority of the population are young.

Posttraumatic stress disorder in a war-affected area of Northeast Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a chronic condition that affects a significant proportion of war survivors following war and conflict. If PTSD is not managed, it can lead to decreased quality of life and impairments in daily functioning and lead to death. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder and its associated factors among residents in a war-affected area, Dessie Town, Northeast Ethiopia.

METHODS

A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among adult residents in the war-affected area, Dessie Town. A total of 615 individuals were selected by a systematic random sampling method. PTSD was assessed using the Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist, Civilian Version. Multivariable logistic regressions were used to measure the associated factors. Associations between variables were described using odds ratios, 95% confidence intervals, and a p-value less than 0.05.

RESULTS

The prevalence of PTSD was 34.5% (95% CI: 31-38). Female sex (AOR: 1.82; CI: 1.18-2.82), divorced or widowed (AOR: 2.12, CI: 1.23-3.66), having only primary schooling (AOR: 2.17; CI: 1.25-3.78), depression (AOR: 2.03; CI: 1.34-3.08), experienced ill health without medical care during the wartime (AOR: 2.97; CI: 1.43-6.16), forced separation from family (AOR: 1.90; CI: 1.16-3.12), and experienced stressful life events (AOR: 1.60; CI: 1.06-2.42) were significantly associated with PTSD.

CONCLUSION

A significant rate of PTSD was found among residents of the war-affected area, Dessie Town. One in three people was experiencing PTSD. As a result, post-war mental health early screening and intervention is a priority, particularly for females, those who are separated or divorced, and those who have experienced stressful life events due to the war.

Post-traumatic stress disorder and associated factors among adult war survivors in Northwest Ethiopia: Community-based, cross-sectional study

Background

A person may endure or witness a traumatic incident, such as being exposed to war, and, as a result, develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). There is a lack of information about post-traumatic stress disorder in low and middle-income countries such as Ethiopia. However, armed conflict, abuse of human rights, and violence motivated by race are becoming more commonplace. This study aimed to assess the prevalence of PTSD and associated factors among war survivors in Nefas Meewcha Town, South Gondar Zone, Ethiopia, 2022.

Methods

A community based cross-sectional study was carried out. 812 study participants were chosen using a multi-stage sampling process. A face-to-face interview used a post-traumatic stress disorder checklist (PCL-5) to evaluate PTSD. The association between PTSD and other demographic and psychosocial characteristics was investigated using bivariate and multivariable binary logistic regression analysis. A P-value of 0.05 was declared as statistical significance.

Result

The prevalence of PTSD in this study was 40.8% with a 95% CI of 36.2 to 46.7. The likelihood of developing PTSD was significantly associated with the fallowing factors. A close family member killed or seriously injured (AOR = 4.53, 95% CI = 3.25-6.46), being female (AOR = 1.98, 95% CI = 1.3-3.0), moderate (AOR = 3.51, 95% CI = 2.52-4.68) and high perceived stress (AOR = 5.23, 95% CI = 3.47-8.26), depression symptoms (AOR = 4.92, 95% CI = 3.57-6.86), anxiety disorder symptoms (AOR = 5.24, 95% CI = 3.72-7.63), a chronic medical illness (AOR = 3.51, 95% CI = 2.52-5.41), physical assault (AOR = 2.12, 95% CI = 1.05-3.72) and being in a war fighting situation (AOR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.21-3.14).

Conclusion

This study reported that the prevalence of PTSD was high. Being female, having a previous history of chronic medical illness, depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, history of a family member or friend was injured or killed, poor social support, high perceived stress, physical assault, and being in a war fighting situation were statistically associated with PTSD. Hence, regular patient assessment by mental health organizations for those with a history of trauma and facilitation of ways to support such residents is highly recommended.