Perfectionism in Adolescence: Associations With Gender, Age, and Socioeconomic Status in a Norwegian Sample

Long-term chronicity of work addiction: the role of personality and work motivations

The current comprehensive study investigated the relationship between work addiction (WA), personality traits, and motivations, focusing on their roles in WA persistence and recovery. The objective was to explore the capacity of personality dimensions and work motivation to predict the chronicity of WA, symptom variation, and gender differences. Over a four-year study of 586 participants (51.4% female), the Bergen Work Addiction Scale was used to assess WA at two time points. Individual differences were assessed by Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire, Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale, short Brief Symptom Inventory, Ruminative Response Scale, and Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale at Time 1. Latent class analysis identified two primary groups in the entire sample: individuals with persistent WA and those without. While females aligned with these groups, males exhibited five distinct latent classes. In females, chronic WA was associated with lower self-esteem, higher self-oriented and socially prescribed perfectionism, rumination, psychological distress, and increased extrinsic motivation. In males, the chronic WA group exhibited heightened levels of perfectionism, rumination, psychopathological distress, lower self-esteem, and elevated extrinsic and introjected regulations compared to the other WA groups. These findings emphasize the possibility of WA persisting over an extended period, with personality traits and motivations playing a significant role in this endurance. These results not only advance our understanding of WA but also provide valuable insights for future research on protective factors against WA. Furthermore, the findings have significant practical implications, including addressing excessive perfectionism in work environments and offering avenues for future research.

Nobody's "Prfect"! The effect of manipulating perfectionism on social anxiety symptoms

Social anxiety is a common experience that ranges from mild, temporary distress to excessive, persistent, and impairing fear. The current study tested whether perfectionism contributes to social anxiety symptoms and post-event processing (PEP) in the context of a contract-based manipulation to shift perfectionism. The manipulation asked participants to perform everything to a specific standard level for the following 24 hrs to shift perfectionism. Participants completed measures of social anxiety and perfectionism before delivering a speech. Next, participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions: High Personal Standards, High Personal Standards with Evaluative Concerns (High PS+EC), and Low Personal Standards. The following day, participants completed the same measures, including a measure on PEP related to the speech. Consistent with hypotheses, results suggest that the contract manipulation significantly altered perfectionism, such that participants in the High PS+EC condition had an increase in perfectionism over time. Contrary to expectations, the contract manipulation did not affect social anxiety symptoms or PEP. Results suggest that focusing on evaluation concerns, rather than personal standards alone, may contribute to perfectionism. It is possible that a stronger or larger dose of the manipulation is needed to see effects on social anxiety symptoms.

Adverse childhood experiences, adult emotional eating, and the role of self-compassion

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are risk factors for the development of a range of physical and mental health problems throughout the lifetime, including emotional eating. Though the negative effects of ACEs are well established, research on protective factors that may mitigate these effects is limited. Self-compassion, which involves treating oneself kindly during challenges, is linked to greater emotional resilience and better emotion regulation. This study examined if ACEs were associated with adult emotional eating and how self-compassion affected this relationship. Adult participants (N = 98) were recruited nationally and completed self-report measures as part of a larger study on self-compassion, distress tolerance, and health belief change. Participants who passed attention check questions and completed optional measures of ACEs and emotional eating were included in the current sample. ACE scores were dichotomized into high (≥4) and low (<4). Multiple linear regressions examined interactions between variables, and mediation analyses explored self-compassion's indirect effects on the ACEs-emotional eating relationship. When controlling for age and socioeconomic status, high ACEs predicted greater propensity for emotional eating. Contrary to hypotheses, self-compassion did not moderate the ACEs-emotional eating relationship, but lower levels of self-compassion emerged as a significant mediator. Findings suggest that higher ACEs may be related to greater adult emotional eating through reduced self-compassion. Results are limited by potential recall bias, reliance on self-report measures, and the cross-sectional nature of the study. Future work should test interventions that enhance self-compassion to reduce emotional eating in adults with ACEs.

The distinct link of perfectionism with positive and negative mental health outcomes

Perfectionism is a known risk for mental health symptoms. However, the literature on perfectionism and mental health mostly focused on the psychopathological symptoms when mental health is not only about the absence of psychopathology but also the presence of positive indicators. The present study aimed to examine the associations of adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism with bidimensional mental health among undergraduate students (N = 467) at a private university in the Philippines. We assessed the role of High Standards and Discrepancy perfectionism on the negative (depression, anxiety, and stress) and positive (satisfaction with life and meaning in life) indicators of mental health. Structural equation modeling demonstrated distinct associations of High Standards and Discrepancy on mental health and well-being outcomes. High Standards positively predicted stress and life satisfaction, and negatively predicted depression, presence of meaning, and search for meaning. High Standards did not have a significant effect on anxiety. Discrepancy positively predicted depression, anxiety, and stress and negatively predicted life satisfaction. Interestingly, presence of meaning was significantly and positively associated with Discrepancy while search for meaning was not. This study contributes to the literature by finding evidence for the distinct influence of Discrepancy and High Standards on several indicators of positive and negative mental health.

Who tends to be a perfectionistic adolescent? Distinguishing perfectionism from excellencism and investigating the links with the Big Five and self-esteem

Striving towards perfection is an important concept of study, given its heterogenous associations with both positive and negative outcomes. To address this matter, recent work has emphasized the need to differentiate between striving towards perfection (perfectionism) and excellence (excellencism). However, the applicability of this differentiation in adolescence remains largely unexplored, despite this life phase being particularly sensitive for the development of perfectionism. To better understand striving towards perfection in adolescence, we examined the psychometric properties of the German Scale of Perfectionism and Excellencism (SCOPE) and evaluated the nomological net with the Big Five and self-esteem in 788 German adolescents (Mage = 15.49 years; 50% female). The results underscored the distinctiveness of the different strivings in adolescents but pointed to mixed evidence regarding convergent and discriminant validities. Notably, striving towards perfection was related to lower levels of openness and self-esteem but higher levels of neuroticism, whereas striving towards excellence was related to higher levels of every trait except neuroticism. Finally, most results remained consistent across genders and school types. We discuss how the differentiation between perfectionism and excellencism deepens our understanding of adolescents' perfectionistic strivings and how it might inform future research across different psychological fields.

Exploring the Dimensions of Perfectionism in Adolescence: A Multi-Method Study on Mental Health and CBT-Based Psychoeducation

BACKGROUND

Perfectionism in adolescents can have both adaptive and maladaptive forms, with implications for mental health and school performance. This study aimed to investigate the relationships among perfectionism, mental health factors, and emotional regulation in adolescents and to evaluate the efficacy of psychoeducational interventions.

METHODS

Two studies were conducted: (1) A cross-sectional study (n = 261) examined the correlations among perfectionism, mental health factors, and emotional regulation. (2) An experimental study (n = 115) evaluated the effects of psychoeducation on perfectionism and healthy habits compared with a control group. The measures included questionnaires on perfectionism, depression, anxiety, stress, and emotional regulation.

RESULTS

Study 1 found that maladaptive perfectionism was positively correlated with depression (r = 0.52, p < 0.001), anxiety (r = 0.48, p < 0.001), stress (r = 0.45, p < 0.001), and difficulties in emotional regulation (r = 0.39, p < 0.001). Adaptive perfectionism was negatively correlated with deficits in emotional understanding (r = -0.31, p < 0.05). Study 2 showed that psychoeducational interventions reduced maladaptive perfectionism (mean difference = -5.7, p < 0.05, Cohen's d = 0.62) and depression levels (mean difference = -3.2, p < 0.05, Cohen's d = 0.38) but increased stress in the experimental groups. No significant changes were observed in adaptive perfectionism or the anxiety level.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings highlight the complex relationships among perfectionism, mental health, and emotional regulation in adolescents. Targeted interventions can reduce maladaptive perfectionism and its associated negative effects. Further research is needed on the long-term outcomes and refinement of interventional strategies.

Temperament and the Experience of Tension and Self-Injurious Behaviour in Adolescents-The Mediating Role of Maladaptive Perfectionism

Background: Adolescence is an important point in the emotional development of young people. It is a time when young people are characterised by a high degree of emotional instability and seek effective ways to regulate their emotions. One of the frequent methods they use to cope with emotional tension is self-injurious behaviour. Methods: In the context of the rising incidence of self-harm among adolescents, this study aims to understand the association of temperament with the experience of tension and self-injurious behaviour along with the mediating role of perfectionism among 366 adolescents aged 15 to 20 years (Mage = 17.98, SD = 1.302, 52.7% female). Participants completed questionnaires on temperament traits, level of perfectionism, and experience of tension and self-injurious behaviour. Results: The results show that traits such as perfectionism, sensory sensitivity and emotional reactivity increase the risk of self-injurious behaviour. Maladaptive perfectionism partially mediates the relationship between these traits and the tendency to experience emotional tension. A temperament profile with a protective role was also identified. Conclusions: The results of the study highlight the importance of innate traits as well as environmental and cognitive influences, and may contribute to a better understanding of the mechanisms leading to self-injurious behaviour and strategies aimed at its prevention.

International trends in male youth suicide and suicidal behaviour

OBJECTIVE

Suicide and suicidal behaviour strongly contribute to overall male youth mortality. An understanding of worldwide data contextualises suicide and suicidal behaviour in young men within any given country.

METHOD

Members and colleagues of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry's Task Force on Men's Mental Health review the relevant data from several regions of the world. The review identifies notable findings across regions of relevance to researchers, policymakers, and clinicians.

RESULTS

Male suicide and suicidal behaviour in adolescence and emerging adulthood within North America, Latin America and the Caribbean, Europe, the Mediterranean and the Middle East, Continental Africa, South Asia, East Asia, China, and Oceania share similarities as well as significant points of divergence.

CONCLUSIONS

International data provide an opportunity to obtain a superior understanding of suicide and suicidal behaviour amongst young men.

Mirror, mirror on my screen: Focus on self-presentation on social media is associated with perfectionism and disordered eating among adolescents. Results from the "LifeOnSoMe"-study

BACKGROUND

Social media use, perfectionism, and disordered eating have all increased over the last decades. Some studies indicate that there is a relationship between self-presentation behaviors and being exposed to others' self-presentation on social media, and disordered eating. Studies also show that the relationship between focus on self-presentation and highly visual social media is stronger than for non-visual social media, hence facilitating upward social comparison. Nevertheless, no previous studies have investigated the link between adolescents' focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media, and perfectionism and disordered eating, which is the aim of the present study.

METHOD

The present study is based on a cross-sectional survey from the "LifeOnSoMe"-study (N = 3424), conducted in 2020 and 2021. Respondents were high school students (mean age 17.3 years, 56% females) in Bergen, Norway. Multiple regression analysis was performed, where SPAUSCIS, a measure of self-presentation and upward social comparison, was the independent variable. Perfectionism and disordered eating were dependent variables. Self-reported age, gender, and subjective socioeconomic status were used as covariates, as well as frequency and duration of social media use. Regression models were performed to compare proportions across the median split of SPAUSCIS.

RESULTS

The multiple regression analysis showed that increased focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media were positively associated with both perfectionism (standardized coefficient 0.28) and disordered eating. A stronger association for girls than boys was found for disordered eating (standardized coefficient 0.39 for girls and 0.29 for boys). There was no gender moderation for perfectionism.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that focus on self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media is associated with perfectionism and disordered eating. We recommend promoting a healthy use of social media. This could be established by increasing adolescents' ability to reflect on and think critically about self-presentation and upward social comparison on social media.

Understanding the Relationship Between the Multidimensional Perfectionism and Self-Compassion in Adults: The Effect of Age

Literature suggests that perfectionism is associated to self-compassion. However, the multiple relationships between the types of perfectionism (adaptive, maladaptive and non-perfectionists) and the multidimensional construct of self-compassion have not been thoroughly examined. To this end, the present study aimed (a) to examine the relationships between the types of perfectionism and the self-compassion components in an adult sample and (b) to check the effect of age on the relationship between the perfectionistic types and the self-compassion components. Participants were 509 adults aged 18 to 65 years. Self-report questionnaires were used to collect the data. Results indicated that High Standards positively predicted all self-compassion components while Discrepancy positively predicted Self-judgment and Isolation and overidentification and negatively predicted Self-Kindness and mindfulness and Common humanity. In addition, it was found that adaptive perfectionists and non-perfectionists reported higher levels on the positive components of self-compassion and lower levels on its negative components, compared to maladaptive perfectionists. With respect to age, participants in established (30-45 years) and middle (46-65 years) adulthood reported higher levels on the positive self-compassion components and lower levels on its negative components compared to young adults (18-29 years), while participants in emerging adulthood scored higher on both the dimensions of perfectionism (adaptive and maladaptive) compared to participants in established and middle adulthood. Finally, age moderated only the relationship between adaptive perfectionism and Isolation and overidentification. Future directions and implications are being discussed.

Associations between perfectionism and symptoms of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression in young people: a meta-analysis

Perfectionism is a transdiagnostic process contributing to the onset and maintenance of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and depression. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to examine the association between perfectionism, and symptoms of anxiety, OCD and depression among young people aged 6-24 years. A systematic literature search retrieved a total of 4,927 articles, with 121 studies included (Mpooled age = ~17.70 years). Perfectionistic concerns demonstrated significant moderate pooled correlations with symptoms of anxiety (r = .37-.41), OCD (r = .42), and depression (r = .40). Perfectionistic strivings demonstrated significant, small correlations with symptoms of anxiety (r = .05) and OCD (r = .19). The findings highlight the substantial link between perfectionistic concerns and psychopathology in young people, and to a smaller extent perfectionistic strivings, anxiety, and OCD. The results indicate the importance of further research on early intervention for perfectionism to improve youth mental health.

The relationship between perfectionism, self-perception of orofacial appearance, and mental health in college students

BACKGROUND

In dental clinical practice, self-perception of orofacial appearance is highly correlated with treatment satisfaction. Therefore, it is important to explore factors correlated with self-perception of orofacial appearance. Perfectionism may be one such factor. This study investigated the role of perfectionism in self-perception of orofacial appearance.

METHODS

Participants completed an online questionnaire that included demographic data, a measure of perfectionism, a measure of self-perception of orofacial appearance (including body image, smile appearance concern, and self-esteem), and a measure of anxiety and depression.

RESULTS

High perfectionism scores significantly predicted greater age, body image, smile appearance concern, and mental health scores and lower self-esteem scores (p < 0.005). After adjusting for possible confounding variables, smile appearance concern largely disappeared. Mental health acted as a mediator in the relationships between perfectionism and three orofacial appearance characteristics.

CONCLUSION

High perfectionism predicted higher self-perception of body image, and lower mental health and self-esteem in college students. Mental health could mediate the relationships between perfectionism and self-perception of orofacial appearance.

Coming of age: A reflection of the first 21 years of cognitive behaviour therapy for perfectionism

It has been 21 years since the publication of the cognitive behavioural model of clinical perfectionism that underpins cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) for perfectionism. The notion of clinical perfectionism and CBT for perfectionism has been controversial. Despite 15 randomised controlled trials which have demonstrated the efficacy of CBT for perfectionism in reducing perfectionism and symptoms of anxiety, depression and eating disorders, strong responses to this work continue to appear in the literature. In this article, we examine the evolution and controversy surrounding clinical perfectionism, the efficacy of CBT for perfectionism, and future directions for the concept of perfectionism and its treatment. Future research should aim to provide independent evaluations of treatment efficacy, compare CBT for perfectionism to active treatments, conduct dismantling trials to examine the effective components of treatment, and examine the causal processes involved in perfectionism. We provide recommendations for future pathways to support innovation in theory, understanding, and treatment of perfectionism with a view towards improving clinical outcomes.

Associations between parental socioeconomic-, family-, and sibling status and risk of eating disorders in offspring in a Danish national female cohort

OBJECTIVE

Studies on parental socioeconomic status (SES) and family risk factors for eating disorders (EDs) have yielded inconsistent results; however, several studies have identified high parental educational attainment as a risk factor. The aim was to evaluate associations of parental SES and family composition with anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), and eating disorders not otherwise specified (EDNOS) in the offspring, adjusting for parental age and parental mental health.

METHODS

The cohort included women born in Denmark between January 1, 1989 and December 31, 2010, derived from Danish national registers. Each person was followed from their sixth birthday until onset of the disorder of interest or to December 31, 2016. Exposure variables were: childhood SES, defined as individually evaluated parental level of income, occupation, and education; sibling status; and family composition. Outcomes were: AN, BN, EDNOS, and major depressive disorder (MDD), included as a psychiatric comparison disorder. Risks were estimated using Cox proportional hazards.

RESULTS

High parental SES was associated with increased risk of especially AN, and less so BN and EDNOS, in offspring. In comparison, low SES was associated with a higher risk of MDD. No differences between maternal or paternal socioeconomic risk factors were found. Family composition and sibling status showed limited influence on ED risk.

DISCUSSION

SES shows opposite associations with AN than MDD, whereas associations with BN and EDNOS are intermediate. The socioeconomic backdrop of AN differs markedly from that reported in other psychiatric disorders. Whether that is due to genetic and/or environmental factors remains unknown.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Parental socioeconomic background (SES) may influence eating disorders risk in offspring somewhat differently than other psychiatric disorders. In Denmark, higher parental SES was associated with increased risk of, particularly, anorexia nervosa (AN). Importantly AN does strike across the SES spectrum. We must ensure that individuals of all backgrounds have equal access to care and are equally likely to be detected and treated appropriately for eating disorders.