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Sheldon EL, Hart CJ, Wilkinson A, Soulsbury C, Ratcliffe VF, Mills DS. Working dogs in dynamic on-duty environments: The impact of dark adaptation, strobe lighting and acoustic distraction on task performance. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0295429. [PMID: 38330038 PMCID: PMC10852332 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0295429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Sudden changes in sound and light (e.g., sirens and flashing police beacons) are a common component of working dogs' on-duty environment. Yet, how such stimuli impact dogs' ability to perform physical and cognitive tasks has not been explored. To address this shortcoming, we compared the accuracy and time taken for twelve dogs to complete a complex physical and cognitive task, before, during and after exposure to three 'real-world' stimuli: an acoustic distractor (85dB), white strobe lighting (5, 10 & 15 Hz), and exposure to a dazzling white, red, or blue lights. We found that strobe lighting, and to a greater extent, acoustic distraction, significantly reduced dogs' physical performance. Acoustic distraction also tended to impair dogs' cognitive performance. Dazzling lights had no effect on task performance. Most (nine out of twelve) dogs sensitised to the acoustic distraction to the extent of non-participation in the rewarded task. Our results suggest that without effective distractor response training, sudden changes in noise and flickering lights are likely to impede cognitive and physical task performance in working dogs. Repeated uncontrolled exposure may also amplify these effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth L. Sheldon
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Carla J. Hart
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Wilkinson
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Carl Soulsbury
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | | | - Daniel S. Mills
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
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2
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Farhat N, Lazebnik T, Monteny J, Moons CPH, Wydooghe E, van der Linden D, Zamansky A. Digitally-enhanced dog behavioral testing. Sci Rep 2023; 13:21252. [PMID: 38040814 PMCID: PMC10692085 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-48423-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Behavioral traits in dogs are assessed for a wide range of purposes such as determining selection for breeding, chance of being adopted or prediction of working aptitude. Most methods for assessing behavioral traits are questionnaire or observation-based, requiring significant amounts of time, effort and expertise. In addition, these methods might be also susceptible to subjectivity and bias, negatively impacting their reliability. In this study, we proposed an automated computational approach that may provide a more objective, robust and resource-efficient alternative to current solutions. Using part of a 'Stranger Test' protocol, we tested n = 53 dogs for their response to the presence and neutral actions of a stranger. Dog coping styles were scored by three dog behavior experts. Moreover, data were collected from their owners/trainers using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ). An unsupervised clustering of the dogs' trajectories revealed two main clusters showing a significant difference in the stranger-directed fear C-BARQ category, as well as a good separation between (sufficiently) relaxed dogs and dogs with excessive behaviors towards strangers based on expert scoring. Based on the clustering, we obtained a machine learning classifier for expert scoring of coping styles towards strangers, which reached an accuracy of 78%. We also obtained a regression model predicting C-BARQ scores with varying performance, the best being Owner-Directed Aggression (with a mean average error of 0.108) and Excitability (with a mean square error of 0.032). This case study demonstrates a novel paradigm of 'machine-based' dog behavioral assessment, highlighting the value and great promise of AI in this context.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Teddy Lazebnik
- Ariel University, Ariel, Israel.
- University College London, London, UK.
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3
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Stephens-Lewis D, Schenke KC. 'Obedient, but cheeky': Human expectations of canine behaviour and companionship. J APPL ANIM WELF SCI 2023:1-17. [PMID: 37414036 DOI: 10.1080/10888705.2023.2233885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
Whilst dogs are adored companions worldwide, high numbers continue to be relinquished each year due to perceived behavioral concerns. Subsequently, this paper addresses the question; What are guardian's expectations of canine behavior and companionship? A total of 175 participants responded to a qualitative semi-structured survey, distributed online. Following a reflexive thematic analysis , five themes are discussed; A well-balanced dog, Obedient, Affection and Connection, Shared Interests, and Commitment. The findings highlight a wide range of expectations typically moving beyond realistic behavior and capabilities for both dogs and guardians. Resultantly, we call for clearer conceptualization of canine behavior, particularly in relation to the distinction between observable behavior and behavioral interpretations (personality, temperament etc.). Clarification on the facets of dog behavior, in addition to better understanding guardian expectations, will aid the development of educational materials aimed at supporting existing human-dog relationships and the adoption matching process within canine adoptions. Cumulatively, this would aid successful human-dog bonding, reducing the risk for relinquishment. These findings build on the recently proposed Perceived Canine Reactivity Framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Stephens-Lewis
- School of Natural and Social Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Francis Close Hall, UK
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4
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Messina MG, Ziv G, Byosiere SE. A preliminary examination of the contextual interference effect on trained trick retention in domestic dogs. J Exp Anal Behav 2023; 120:36-49. [PMID: 37219081 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
This study sought to enhance current dog training practices by determining whether a finding from human motor skill learning research, the contextual interference (CI) effect, could be replicated in a trick-training paradigm with companion dogs. In humans, research shows that practicing skills in random order, as compared with blocked order, improves learning of those skills. To test this question in dogs, we randomly allocated 17 dogs to blocked training (low CI) or random training (high CI). The dogs performed three behaviors of varying difficulty. After training, we conducted a retention test in which half of the dogs in each group performed the tasks in blocked order and the other half in random order. We scored each trick, measured duration, and measured whether dogs required one or two tries to perform a behavior. We found no significant differences between dogs who practiced three tricks in random or in blocked order during training and during a retention test. This study is the first to apply the CI effect to dog trick training. Although no evidence of the CI effect was found, the current research provides a preliminary framework for future studies with potential implications for increasing retention of trained skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maddie G Messina
- Thinking Dog Center, Hunter College, City University of New York, NY, USA
| | - Gal Ziv
- The Academic College at Wingate, Netanya, Israel
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5
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Visual perception of emotion cues in dogs: a critical review of methodologies. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:727-754. [PMID: 36870003 PMCID: PMC10066124 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01762-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023]
Abstract
Comparative studies of human-dog cognition have grown exponentially since the 2000's, but the focus on how dogs look at us (as well as other dogs) as social partners is a more recent phenomenon despite its importance to human-dog interactions. Here, we briefly summarise the current state of research in visual perception of emotion cues in dogs and why this area is important; we then critically review its most commonly used methods, by discussing conceptual and methodological challenges and associated limitations in depth; finally, we suggest some possible solutions and recommend best practice for future research. Typically, most studies in this field have concentrated on facial emotional cues, with full body information rarely considered. There are many challenges in the way studies are conceptually designed (e.g., use of non-naturalistic stimuli) and the way researchers incorporate biases (e.g., anthropomorphism) into experimental designs, which may lead to problematic conclusions. However, technological and scientific advances offer the opportunity to gather much more valid, objective, and systematic data in this rapidly expanding field of study. Solving conceptual and methodological challenges in the field of emotion perception research in dogs will not only be beneficial in improving research in dog-human interactions, but also within the comparative psychology area, in which dogs are an important model species to study evolutionary processes.
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6
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Marcato M, Kenny J, O’Riordan R, O’Mahony C, O’Flynn B, Galvin P. Assistance dog selection and performance assessment methods using behavioural and physiological tools and devices. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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7
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Phenotypic correlates of the working dog microbiome. NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2022; 8:66. [PMID: 35995802 PMCID: PMC9395329 DOI: 10.1038/s41522-022-00329-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dogs have a key role in law enforcement and military work, and research with the goal of improving working dog performance is ongoing. While there have been intriguing studies from lab animal models showing a potential connection between the gut microbiome and behavior or mental health there is a dearth of studies investigating the microbiome-behavior relationship in working dogs. The overall objective of this study was to characterize the microbiota of working dogs and to determine if the composition of the microbiota is associated with behavioral and performance outcomes. Freshly passed stools from each working canine (Total n = 134) were collected and subject to shotgun metagenomic sequencing using Illumina technology. Behavior, performance, and demographic metadata were collected. Descriptive statistics and prediction models of behavioral/phenotypic outcomes using gradient boosting classification based on Xgboost were used to study associations between the microbiome and outcomes. Regarding machine learning methodology, only microbiome features were used for training and predictors were estimated in cross-validation. Microbiome markers were statistically associated with motivation, aggression, cowardice/hesitation, sociability, obedience to one trainer vs many, and body condition score (BCS). When prediction models were developed based on machine learning, moderate predictive power was observed for motivation, sociability, and gastrointestinal issues. Findings from this study suggest potential gut microbiome markers of performance and could potentially advance care for working canines.
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8
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Menaker T, Monteny J, de Beeck LO, Zamansky A. Clustering for Automated Exploratory Pattern Discovery in Animal Behavioral Data. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:884437. [PMID: 35812846 PMCID: PMC9260587 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.884437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional methods of data analysis in animal behavior research are usually based on measuring behavior by manually coding a set of chosen behavioral parameters, which is naturally prone to human bias and error, and is also a tedious labor-intensive task. Machine learning techniques are increasingly applied to support researchers in this field, mostly in a supervised manner: for tracking animals, detecting land marks or recognizing actions. Unsupervised methods are increasingly used, but are under-explored in the context of behavior studies and applied contexts such as behavioral testing of dogs. This study explores the potential of unsupervised approaches such as clustering for the automated discovery of patterns in data which have potential behavioral meaning. We aim to demonstrate that such patterns can be useful at exploratory stages of data analysis before forming specific hypotheses. To this end, we propose a concrete method for grouping video trials of behavioral testing of animal individuals into clusters using a set of potentially relevant features. Using an example of protocol for testing in a “Stranger Test”, we compare the discovered clusters against the C-BARQ owner-based questionnaire, which is commonly used for dog behavioral trait assessment, showing that our method separated well between dogs with higher C-BARQ scores for stranger fear, and those with lower scores. This demonstrates potential use of such clustering approach for exploration prior to hypothesis forming and testing in behavioral research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Menaker
- Information Systems Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Joke Monteny
- Department of Biotechnology, Vives University College, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lin Op de Beeck
- Department of Biotechnology, Vives University College, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Anna Zamansky
- Information Systems Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
- *Correspondence: Anna Zamansky
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9
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Wilson BJ, Arnott ER, Early JB, Wade CM, McGreevy PD. Valued personality traits in livestock herding Kelpies—Development and application of a livestock herding dog assessment form. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0267266. [PMID: 35472124 PMCID: PMC9041829 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0267266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Livestock herding dogs contribute greatly to the rural economy of Australia. However, their selection currently lacks a cohesive or methodical approach. For example, there is no accessible tool for assessing Australian livestock herding dogs’ suitability for work. The purpose of the current study was to devise a herding dog assessment form, the Herding Dog Assessment Form–Personality (HDAF-P), to facilitate collection of data on relevant behavioural phenotypes of large numbers of working Kelpies and to apply the HDAF-P to identify personality traits needed for herding dog performance. The focus was on creating a succinct form that was salient and accessible to livestock herding dog owners. Wherever practical, terms and methods from published personality questionnaires were integrated. Seventeen terms were included as behavioural descriptors in the HDAF-P which was then used by 95 owners to assess a sample of 228 of their working Kelpies. Owners were also asked to rate the overall ability of their dog(s). Of these dogs, 210 (all twelve months or older) were fully described and their data were used in the analysis. Thus, the study was designed to reveal which personality traits are most critical to the overall ability of the herding dogs and to undertake an exploratory analysis of the patterns of dog behaviour revealed by the HDAF-P in non-juvenile dogs. The traits that showed the strongest correlations (using Kendall’s Tau correlation analysis) with overall ability were initiative (T = 0.41, p < 0.001), persistence (T = 0.36, p < 0.001), intelligence (T = 0.32, p < 0.001), confidence (T = 0.36, p < 0.001) and nervousness (T = -0.30, p < 0.001). An exploratory principal component analysis of trait scores revealed that 64.5% of the variance could be explained by four components that share several similarities with those reported by previous dog personality studies. These findings confirm that the HDAF-P has potential for the practical assessment of livestock herding dog personality and can elucidate traits that should be considered for prioritisation in training and breeding to optimise herding dog ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bethany J. Wilson
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Elizabeth R. Arnott
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- * E-mail:
| | - Jonathan B. Early
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Claire M. Wade
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Paul D. McGreevy
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, Faculty of Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
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10
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Maughan MN, Best EM, Gadberry JD, Sharpes CE, Evans KL, Chue CC, Nolan PL, Buckley PE. The Use and Potential of Biomedical Detection Dogs During a Disease Outbreak. Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:848090. [PMID: 35445042 PMCID: PMC9014822 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.848090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomedical detection dogs offer incredible advantages during disease outbreaks that are presently unmatched by current technologies, however, dogs still face hurdles of implementation due to lack of inter-governmental cooperation and acceptance by the public health community. Here, we refine the definition of a biomedical detection dog, discuss the potential applications, capabilities, and limitations of biomedical detection dogs in disease outbreak scenarios, and the safety measures that must be considered before and during deployment. Finally, we provide recommendations on how to address and overcome the barriers to acceptance of biomedical detection dogs through a dedicated research and development investment in olfactory sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric M. Best
- Penn State Harrisburg, Harrisburg, PA, United States
| | | | | | - Kelley L. Evans
- Biochemistry Branch, U.S. Army DEVCOM Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, United States
| | - Calvin C. Chue
- Biochemistry Branch, U.S. Army DEVCOM Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, United States
| | | | - Patricia E. Buckley
- Biochemistry Branch, U.S. Army DEVCOM Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, United States
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11
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Ayrosa F, Albuquerque N, Savalli C, Resende B. Size, skull shape and age influence the temperament of domestic dogs. Behav Processes 2022; 197:104606. [PMID: 35202769 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2022.104606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Studies have investigated the relationship between dogs' morphological characteristics and behavioural dimensions, but little is discussed about this relationship in the context of dogs' responses to emotion eliciting stimuli and temperament. Based on the assumption that the developmental trajectory of behaviour and emotion processing is impacted by the interaction between organisms and environment, we analysed whether dogs' characteristics - that determine how they perceive and interact with their surroundings - affect temperament profiles. We looked at size, height, weight, skull morphology, age, sex, reproductive status, and breed of a sample of Brazilian domestic dogs' and their temperament (measured as Positive and Negative Activation), obtained via the PANAS questionnaire for dogs. We tested possible main effects and first-order interactions in linear mixed models. Younger dogs showed higher positive activation (i.e. sensitivity to positive stimuli; play and treats). For short snouted dogs, the older the dog, less was the negative activation (i.e. sensitivity to negative stimuli; punishment). And for long snouted dogs, larger dogs showed lower negative activation. Weight alone also showed an effect, with heavier dogs having less sensitivity to negative stimuli. Overall, our study demonstrated how morphology and age are important factors that influence temperament expression and emotional reactivity in dogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavio Ayrosa
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Mello Moraes 1721, 05508-030 São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Natalia Albuquerque
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Mello Moraes 1721, 05508-030 São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carine Savalli
- Department of Public Policies and Collective Health, Federal University of São Paulo, Rua Silva Jardim 136, Santos 11015-020, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Briseida Resende
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Institute of Psychology, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Mello Moraes 1721, 05508-030 São Paulo, Brazil
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12
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Griffin KE, John E, Pike T, Mills DS. What Will Happen to This Dog? A Qualitative Analysis of Rehoming Organisations' Pre-adoption Dog Behaviour Screening Policies and Procedures. Front Vet Sci 2022; 8:796596. [PMID: 35097045 PMCID: PMC8795610 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.796596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rehoming organisations often undertake some type of behaviour evaluation to determine dogs' suitability for rehoming and/or the type of suitable home. Assessments can carry considerable weight in determining dogs' fates. Although evaluation of the validity and reliability of any test is important, a more fundamental consideration is if the nature of the information sought and the weight given to this in organisations' decision making is of more than anecdotal value. Therefore, this study's aim was to conduct a qualitative analysis of organisations' pre-adoption dog behaviour screenings and potential justifications, comparing this with the available scientific evidence. A written enquiry was sent electronically to rehoming organisations in the UK and US from February 2016-July 2017. Of 73 respondents, the majority conducted assessments for all dogs. Using a thematic analysis, nine themes and 71 sub-themes emerged concerning the types of information respondents aim to gather from assessments. The majority of respondents used, at least partially, pass/fail scoring, i.e., certain outcomes would lead to dogs being deemed unadoptable. Forty-one sub-themes and one theme were identified as potentially leading to a dog being deemed unadoptable. The evidence base for these factors was identified from the scientific literature relating to: increased risk for relinquishment, impact on a dog's quality of life, and human safety risk. Evidence supported 10 factors: “aggression towards people”, “aggression towards cats or other animals”, “aggression towards dogs”, “biting or snapping”, “resource guarding”, “activity level or exercise needs”, “destructiveness”, “housetrained”, “fearfulness”, and “knowledge of basic commands and/or general training”. Of those, seven were associated only with relinquishment risk, two (“resource guarding”, “knowledge of basic commands”) with human safety risk, and one (“fearfulness”) with both. Thus, for >85% of characteristics organisations deemed important for dogs' adoptability, scientific evidence to support this is lacking. More research is needed to investigate the value of behaviour assessments, especially concerning the assessment of factors that could pose a public safety risk. However, given the current lack of scientific support for many decisions regarding dogs' rehoming suitability and recognised pressure on resources, it is suggested that organisations should focus on pre-adoption adopter education and post-adoption support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen E. Griffin
- School of Life Sciences, College of Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
- Department Population Health Sciences, Unit Animals in Science and Society, Animal Behaviour, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
- The Dog Rehoming Project, Irvine, CA, United States
- *Correspondence: Karen E. Griffin
| | - Elizabeth John
- College of Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Pike
- School of Life Sciences, College of Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel S. Mills
- School of Life Sciences, College of Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
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13
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Cobb ML, Otto CM, Fine AH. The Animal Welfare Science of Working Dogs: Current Perspectives on Recent Advances and Future Directions. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:666898. [PMID: 34722690 PMCID: PMC8555628 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.666898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Working dogs are prevalent throughout our societies, assisting people in diverse contexts, from explosives detection and livestock herding, to therapy partners. Our scientific exploration and understanding of animal welfare have grown dramatically over the last decade. As community attitudes toward the use of animals continue to change, applying this new knowledge of welfare to improve the everyday lives of working dogs will underpin the sustainability of working with dogs in these roles. The aim of this report was to consider the scientific studies of working dogs from the last decade (2011–2021) in relation to modern ethics, human interaction, and the five domains of animal welfare: nutrition, environment, behavioral interaction, physical health, and mental state. Using this framework, we were able to analyze the concept and contribution of working dog welfare science. Noting some key advances across the full working dog life cycle, we identify future directions and opportunities for interdisciplinary research to optimize dog welfare. Prioritizing animal welfare in research and practice will be critical to assure the ongoing relationship between dogs and people as co-workers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mia L Cobb
- Animal Welfare Science Centre, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Science, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Cynthia M Otto
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, University of Pennsylvania School of Veterinary Medicine, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Aubrey H Fine
- College of Education and Integrative Studies, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona, CA, United States
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14
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Owner-perceived behaviour in thoroughbred horses in secondary careers – A pilot study. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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15
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Rooney NJ, Clark CCA. Development of a Performance Monitoring Instrument for Rating Explosives Search Dog Performance. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:545382. [PMID: 34169102 PMCID: PMC8216871 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.545382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The growing body of working dog literature includes many examples of scales robustly developed to measure aspects of dog behavior. However, when comparing behavior to working dog ability, most studies rely on training organizations' own long-established ratings of performance, or simply pass/fail at selection or certification as measures of success. Working ability is multifaceted, and it is likely that different aspects of ability are differentially affected by external factors. In order to understand how specific aspects of selection, training, and operations influence a dog's working ability, numerous facets of performance should be considered. An accurate and validated method for quantifying multiple aspects of performance is therefore required. Here, we describe the first stages of formulating a meaningful performance measurement tool for two types of working search dogs. The systematic methodology used was: (1) interviews and workshops with a representative cross-section of stakeholders to produce a shortlist of behaviors integral to current operational performance of vehicle (VS) and high assurance (HAS) search dogs; (2) assessing the reliability and construct validity of the shortlisted behavioral measures (at the behavior and the individual rater level) using ratings of diverse videoed searches by experienced personnel; and (3) selecting the most essential and meaningful behaviors based on their reliability/validity and importance. The resulting performance measurement tool was composed of 12 shortlisted behaviors, most of which proved reliable and valid when assessed by a group of raters. At the individual rater level, however, there was variability between raters in the ability to use and interpret behavioral measures, in particular, more abstract behaviors such as Independence. This illustrates the importance of examining individual rater scores rather than extrapolating from group consensus (as is often done), especially when designing a tool that will ultimately be used by single raters. For ratings to be practically valuable, individual rater reliability needs to be improved, especially for behaviors deemed as essential (e.g., control and confidence). We suggest that the next steps are to investigate why individuals vary in their ratings and to undertake efforts to increase the likelihood that they reach a common conceptualization of each behavioral construct. Plausible approaches are improving the format in which behaviors are presented, e.g., by adding benchmarks and utilizing rater training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola J Rooney
- Animal Welfare and Behavior Group, Bristol Veterinary School University of Bristol, Langford, United Kingdom
| | - Corinna C A Clark
- Animal Welfare and Behavior Group, Bristol Veterinary School University of Bristol, Langford, United Kingdom.,Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom
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16
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Bray EE, Otto CM, Udell MAR, Hall NJ, Johnston AM, MacLean EL. Enhancing the Selection and Performance of Working Dogs. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:644431. [PMID: 34055947 PMCID: PMC8149746 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.644431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dogs perform a variety of integral roles in our society, engaging in work ranging from assistance (e.g., service dogs, guide dogs) and therapy to detection (e.g., search-and-rescue dogs, explosive detection dogs) and protection (e.g., military and law enforcement dogs). However, success in these roles, which requires dogs to meet challenging behavioral criteria and to undergo extensive training, is far from guaranteed. Therefore, enhancing the selection process is critical for the effectiveness and efficiency of working dog programs and has the potential to optimize how resources are invested in these programs, increase the number of available working dogs, and improve working dog welfare. In this paper, we review two main approaches for achieving this goal: (1) developing selection tests and criteria that can efficiently and effectively identify ideal candidates from the overall pool of candidate dogs, and (2) developing approaches to enhance performance, both at the individual and population level, via improvements in rearing, training, and breeding. We summarize key findings from the empirical literature regarding best practices for assessing, selecting, and improving working dogs, and conclude with future steps and recommendations for working dog organizations, breeders, trainers, and researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily E Bray
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Canine Companions for Independence, National Headquarters, Santa Rosa, CA, United States
| | - Cynthia M Otto
- Penn Vet Working Dog Center, Department of Clinical Sciences and Advanced Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Monique A R Udell
- Human-Animal Interaction Laboratory, Department of Animal and Rangeland Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Nathaniel J Hall
- Canine Olfaction Lab, Department of Animal and Food Science, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States
| | - Angie M Johnston
- Boston College Canine Cognition Center, Psychology and Neuroscience Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, United States
| | - Evan L MacLean
- Arizona Canine Cognition Center, School of Anthropology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Cognitive Science Program, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,Department of Psychology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States.,College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
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17
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Validation of a Behavior Test for Predicting Puppies' Suitability as Detection Dogs. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11040993. [PMID: 33916191 PMCID: PMC8065730 DOI: 10.3390/ani11040993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Behavioral characteristics are the most influential factor in the success of a working dog. The need for highly capable detection dogs continues to rise; but reliable methods for early selection are lacking. The current study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of a behavioral test for assessing detection dog suitability. A cohort of candidate detection dog puppies (n = 60) were tested at 3; 5; and 11 months of age; as well as at the completion of training at approximately one year. Tests were designed to assess important detection dog behavioral characteristics such as search ability and fearfulness. Inter-rater reliability was high between independent observers. Convergent validity was demonstrated by comparing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) scores from the behavior test to trainer ratings using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and a survey of detection dog traits. Performance on the behavior test predicted adult selection as a detection dog as early as 3 months. The methods reported will be valuable for improving selection measures and enhancing collaborations across breeding programs in order to increase the availability of highly capable detection dogs.
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18
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Gajdoš Kmecová N, Pet'ková B, Kottferová J, Wannell RS, Mills DS. Potential Risk Factors for Aggression and Playfulness in Cats: Examination of a Pooling Fallacy Using Fe-BARQ as an Example. Front Vet Sci 2021; 7:545326. [PMID: 33469553 PMCID: PMC7813754 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.545326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Using a popular method of behaviour evaluation which rates the intensity of behaviour in different contexts, we demonstrate how pooling item scores relating to a given construct can reveal different potential risk factors for the dependent variable depending on how the total score is constructed. We highlight how similar simple total scores can be constructed through very different combinations of constituent items. We argue for the importance of examining individual item score distributions, and the results from different intensity thresholds before deciding on the preferred method for calculating a meaningful dependent variable. We consider simply pooling individual item scores which conflate context with intensity to calculate an average score and assuming this represents a biologically meaningful measure of trait intensity is a fallacy. Specifically using four items that describe intercat aggression and eleven that describe playfulness in cats in Fe-BARQ, we found sex and neuter status, social play and fearfulness were consistently significant predictors for intercat aggression scores; and age, age when obtained, social play and fearfulness were significant predictors of playfulness scores. However, the significance of other factors such as scratching varied with the threshold used to calculate to the total score. We argue that some of these inconsistent variables may be biologically and clinically important and should not be considered random error. Instead they need to be evaluated in the context of other available evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noema Gajdoš Kmecová
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, Workplace of Applied Ethology and Professional Ethics, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Košice, Slovakia.,Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Barbara Pet'ková
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, Workplace of Applied Ethology and Professional Ethics, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Jana Kottferová
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, Workplace of Applied Ethology and Professional Ethics, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Rachel Sarah Wannell
- Department of Public Veterinary Medicine and Animal Welfare, Workplace of Applied Ethology and Professional Ethics, University of Veterinary Medicine and Pharmacy in Košice, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Daniel Simon Mills
- Animal Behaviour, Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
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19
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Dog Welfare, Well-Being and Behavior: Considerations for Selection, Evaluation and Suitability for Animal-Assisted Therapy. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10112188. [PMID: 33238376 PMCID: PMC7700550 DOI: 10.3390/ani10112188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Revised: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Benefits for humans participating in animal-assisted therapy (AAT) have been long documented; however, welfare considerations for the animal counterparts are still quite non-specific, often relating to more general concerns associated with animal-assisted interventions (AAIs). Providers of AAT have a moral and ethical obligation to extend the “Do No Harm” tenet to the animals with whom they work. Companion animals do not ask or voluntarily sign up to be a part of a therapeutic team and their natural traits of love and sociability can easily be misinterpreted and exploited. This article reviews the current state of animal-assisted interventions; it highlights the lack of sufficient evaluation processes for dogs working with AAT professionals, as well as the risks associated with not protecting the dogs’ welfare. Finally, the authors make recommendations for determining the suitability of specific dogs in the clinical setting and ensuring that the population, environment, and context of the work is amenable to the dogs’ welfare and well-being. Abstract Health care and human service providers may include dogs in formal intervention settings to positively impact human physical, cognitive and psychosocial domains. Dogs working within this context are asked to cope with a multitude of variables including settings, populations, activities, and schedules. In this article, the authors highlight how both the preparation and operation of dogs within animal-assisted therapy (AAT) differs from less structured animal-assisted activities (AAA) and more exclusive assistance animal work; the authors highlight the gaps in our knowledge in this regard, and propose an ethically sound framework for pragmatic solutions. This framework also emphasizes the need for good dog welfare to safeguard all participants. If dogs are not properly matched to a job or handler, they may be subjected to unnecessary stress, anxiety, and miscommunication that can lead to disinterest in the work, overt problematic behavioral or health outcomes, or general unsuitability. Such issues can have catastrophic outcomes for the AAT. The authors propose standards for best practices for selection, humane-based preparation and training, and ongoing evaluation to ensure the health, welfare and well-being of dogs working in AAT, which will have concomitant benefits for clients and the professionalism of the field.
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20
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Lazarowski L, Waggoner LP, Krichbaum S, Singletary M, Haney P, Rogers B, Angle C. Selecting Dogs for Explosives Detection: Behavioral Characteristics. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:597. [PMID: 33088829 PMCID: PMC7493654 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00597] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Detection dogs are widely considered the most effective and adaptive method for explosives detection. Increases in emerging sophisticated threats are accelerating the demand for highly capable explosives detection, causing a strain on available supplies of quality canines worldwide. These strains are further compounded by rigorous behavioral standards required to meet mission-specific capabilities, leading to high rates of dogs disqualified from training or deployment. Ample research has explored the behavioral characteristics important for assistance, guide, and other traditional working roles, while those corresponding to more specialized tasks such as detection of explosives are not as well-understood. In this review we aim to identify the behavioral characteristics important for operational tasks of explosives detection dogs, contrasting with that of other working roles and highlighting key differences between explosives and other types of detection dogs. Further, we review the available research on methods for assessing and selecting candidate detection dogs and make recommendations for future directions and applications to the industry. Improvements and standardization in assessment technology allowing for the identification and enhancement of behavioral characteristics will be key to advancing canine detection technology in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Lazarowski
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Lowell Paul Waggoner
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Sarah Krichbaum
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States.,Department of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Melissa Singletary
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States.,Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Pamela Haney
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Bart Rogers
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
| | - Craig Angle
- Canine Performance Sciences Program, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States
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21
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Behavior test for seven-week old puppies (Canis familiaris): Inter-rater reliability and factors associated with test performance. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0236271. [PMID: 32726318 PMCID: PMC7390333 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 07/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Behavioral development in domestic dogs has been investigated for predicting suitability for service dog work or for matching with the "right" families as well as for identifying predispositions to behavioral problems. Findings from the scientific literature seem to confirm that conducting behavioral tests at 7 weeks of age is too early to reliably predict the temperament and personality of a dog. However, this period for domestic dogs is sensitive for early life learning and conditions during this time could have important consequences in adulthood. The aims of this study were to evaluate inter-rater reliability of a simple standardized test and to investigate which factors influence the behavioral reaction of puppies. 105 seven-week old puppies were exposed to five subtests: social attraction, following, retrieving, sudden appearance, noise. During each task, the behaviour of each pup was scored on a 3-5 point scale that reflected the suitability of the pup's reaction to the task. Scores were evaluated for a single subtest and for two aggregate indicators (i.e. response to a person: social attraction subtest and following subtest and response to object and noise: retrieving subtest, sudden appearance subtest and noise subtest). Three assessors independently scored the dogs' reactions for each task. Inter-rater reliability of the three assessors were analyzed with Fleiss' Kappa and Kendall's coefficient, which showed a high inter-rater reliability in 4 of 5 tasks. The ordered logistic regression was carried out to obtain a proportional odds model that was used to model the relationship between sex, litter size, stimulating environment, parity of mother, adequate maternal behavior and high scores. Litter size and maternal parity were associated with test performance in response to a person. The variance of effect of litter was high in response to object and noise. Taken together, our results suggest that using this scoring system there is sufficient inter-rater reliability in the test and litter size and mother experience influences task performances related to dog-human interaction.
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22
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Lazarowski L, Krichbaum S, Waggoner LP, Katz JS. The development of problem-solving abilities in a population of candidate detection dogs (Canis familiaris). Anim Cogn 2020; 23:755-768. [PMID: 32333134 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-020-01387-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Both ontogenetic and phylogenetic factors have shaped dogs' cognitive capabilities, resulting in a heightened social sensitivity at the apparent cost of non-social problem-solving abilities. Research has suggested that training history and life experience can influence problem-solving abilities in dogs. However, the ontogenetic development of problem-solving abilities in dogs has been less explored. We tested a population of candidate detection dogs of various ages across the first year of development on four well-established problem-solving tasks targeting different cognitive domains (i.e., cylinder, A-not-B barrier, delayed search, and spatial transposition tasks). We examined developmental effects by comparing cognitive task performance across three age groups. Age-related improvements for all four cognitive measures indicate developmental increases in processes related to inhibitory control, attention, and spatial cognition between 3 and 12 months of age. Additionally, we found some relationships between cognitive measures and detection dog performance measures, though effects were not as robust. We discuss the results in the context of canine cognitive development and corresponding effects of phylogeny and ontogeny, as well as potential applications to working dog training and selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Lazarowski
- Canine Performance Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA.
| | - Sarah Krichbaum
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - L Paul Waggoner
- Canine Performance Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Jeffrey S Katz
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
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23
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Mills DS, Mueller HW, McPeake K, Engel O. Development and Psychometric Validation of the Lincoln Canine Anxiety Scale. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:171. [PMID: 32318590 PMCID: PMC7146976 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Anxiety in dogs, especially in relation to certain noises, is a common issue which can lead to clinically significant problems like noise phobias. While several scales have been used to assess sound sensitivity and reactivity, clinical monitoring has tended to depend on unvalidated methods, general assessment, and/or historical comparison with owners' recall of previous episodes. Therefore, we aimed to develop and validate a scale to assess canine anxiety. Materials and Methods: We used the data from 226 dogs from a previously reported double blind placebo controlled study in order to determine the validity of the 16 item “Lincoln Canine Anxiety Scale.” Unidimensionality was assessed through correlation between individual item scores and total score, with internal consistency assessed using Cronbach's alpha. Factor analysis was used to determine the dimensionality of the scale. Item response theory (IRT) was used to gain insight into the value of single items to the overall scale scores. To characterize the score characteristics in an anxiety-eliciting context we analyzed the behaviors of placebo treated dogs assessed at 00:20 h, the time point of maximum noise stimulus during New Year's Eve fireworks. Sensitivity of the scale to treatment effects was determined from its performance in the wider study. Results: The majority of correlations between individual items and total score were >0.48, with Cronbach's alpha equalling 0.88, indicating good internal consistency. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) confirmed a unidimensional structure. IRT indicated that the scale could be reduced to 11 items without significantly reducing its value. The scale showed good treatment and stimulus sensitivity, with a score change of ~20 points differentiating “no/worse” effect from an “excellent” effect and a 30% difference between treatment (imepitoin) and placebo. Conclusion: In our initial validation the Lincoln Canine Anxiety Scale appears to provide a reliable method for determining anxiety and fear responses by dogs and monitoring the effects of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel S Mills
- Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kevin McPeake
- Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Odilo Engel
- Boehringer Ingelheim Vetmedica GmbH, Ingelheim am Rhein, Germany
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24
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Mugenda L, Shreyer T, Croney C. Refining canine welfare assessment in kennels: Evaluating the reliability of Field Instantaneous Dog Observation (FIDO) scoring. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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25
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Lazarowski L, Rogers B, Waggoner LP, Katz JS. When the nose knows: ontogenetic changes in detection dogs' (Canis familiaris) responsiveness to social and olfactory cues. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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26
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McPeake KJ, Collins LM, Zulch H, Mills DS. The Canine Frustration Questionnaire-Development of a New Psychometric Tool for Measuring Frustration in Domestic Dogs ( Canis familiaris). Front Vet Sci 2019; 6:152. [PMID: 31165075 PMCID: PMC6535675 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2019.00152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Psychometric tools have been developed for the assessment of behavioral and affective traits in non-human animals. Frustration can be defined as an emotional reaction experienced after a given expectation is violated. Frustration is a negative emotional state and whilst it probably plays a key role in certain behavior problems in dogs (e.g., aggressive behaviors), there appears to have been little attempt to scale this affective tendency. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to develop a tool to assess frustration tendencies in dogs. Materials and Methods: An online owner survey was developed. Items covered demographics, the training/behavioral history of the dog, and 33 frustration related items scored using a 5-point Likert scale. The questionnaire was disseminated via on-line channels over a 5-month period. Two thousand three hundred forty-eight respondents completed the questionnaire. Of these, 273 respondents completed it a second time 6 weeks later, and a separate 276 respondents completed it a second time 1 year later. Additionally, 92 paired responses were collected where two carers completed the questionnaire independently about the same dog. Intra- and inter-rater reliabilities were assessed prior to structuring the items using principal component analysis (PCA) with a Varimax rotation. Items were retained if they loaded > 0.4 on at least one of the components extracted using the Kaiser criterion. Results: Twenty-two items were deemed to be reliable enough to be used in the PCA and 21 items loaded on a biologically meaningful 5-principal component solution. There was a significant positive correlation between each principal component and the owners' general perception of their dogs' frustration tendencies, alongside other expected correlates. Conclusion: This is the first reliable psychometric tool for the assessment of frustration in dogs-the Canine Frustration Questionnaire (CFQ). Further validation with behavioral tests and physiological measures is ongoing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J. McPeake
- Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
| | - Lisa M. Collins
- Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | | | - Daniel S. Mills
- Animal Behaviour Cognition and Welfare Group, School of Life Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom
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