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Lee JM, Lee GH, Kim K. Attending veterinarians improve the research capability and psychological well-being of researchers in animal research institutes. Front Vet Sci 2024; 10:1340225. [PMID: 38249556 PMCID: PMC10797093 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1340225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
The use of laboratory animals in biomedical research has significantly advanced scientific understanding, yet it raises ethical concerns about animal welfare and the mental health of researchers Recent research has highlighted the potential for stress and compassion fatigue among researchers working with distressed animals. Attending veterinarians (AVs) are crucial in mitigating the pain and stress experienced by animals and, by extension, researchers. However, the impact of AVs on researchers' psychological well-being remains understudied. This study explores how AVs contribute to researchers' research capability and psychological well-being in animal research institutions. AVs oversee animal housing, health, and welfare; their involvement is mandated or strongly recommended in developed countries. AVs enhance animal welfare by ensuring proper housing, nutrition, and social interaction. They monitor animal health, educate researchers on pain assessment, and promote compliance with post-surgical care. AVs also contribute to researchers' well-being by addressing euthanasia procedures, which can be emotionally challenging. Programs for rehoming animals after experiments offer an alternative to euthanasia and positively impact researchers' psychological well-being. Moreover, AVs promote workplace well-being by fostering positive workplace cultures, offering peer counseling, and providing social support. Programs considering animal welfare and researchers' emotions are crucial for a healthy research environment. In conclusion, AVs are essential in balancing scientific progress with animal welfare and researchers' psychological well-being. Therefore, their role should be recognized as vital in achieving social equity that considers the welfare of humans and laboratory animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Min Lee
- Research Ethics Team, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Gwang-Hoon Lee
- Preclinical Research Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation, Daegu, Republic of Korea
| | - KilSoo Kim
- Preclinical Research Center, Daegu-Gyeongbuk Medical Innovation Foundation, Daegu, Republic of Korea
- Department of Veterinary Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
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2
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de C Williams AC. Pain: Behavioural expression and response in an evolutionary framework. Evol Med Public Health 2023; 11:429-437. [PMID: 38022798 PMCID: PMC10656790 DOI: 10.1093/emph/eoad038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
An evolutionary perspective offers insights into the major public health problem of chronic (persistent) pain; behaviours associated with it perpetuate both pain and disability. Pain is motivating, and pain-related behaviours promote recovery by immediate active or passive defence; subsequent protection of wounds; suppression of competing responses; energy conservation; vigilance to threat; and learned avoidance of associated cues. When these persist beyond healing, as in chronic pain, they are disabling. In mammals, facial and bodily expression of pain is visible and identifiable by others, while social context, including conspecifics' responses, modulate pain. Studies of responses to pain emphasize onlooker empathy, but people with chronic pain report feeling disbelieved and stigmatized. Observers frequently discount others' pain, best understood in terms of cheater detection-alertness to free riders that underpins the capacity for prosocial behaviours. These dynamics occur both in everyday life and in clinical encounters, providing an account of the adaptiveness of pain-related behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda C de C Williams
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational & Health Psychology, University College London, Gower St, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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3
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Feighelstein M, Ehrlich Y, Naftaly L, Alpin M, Nadir S, Shimshoni I, Pinho RH, Luna SPL, Zamansky A. Deep learning for video-based automated pain recognition in rabbits. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14679. [PMID: 37674052 PMCID: PMC10482887 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41774-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the wide range of uses of rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) as experimental models for pain, as well as their increasing popularity as pets, pain assessment in rabbits is understudied. This study is the first to address automated detection of acute postoperative pain in rabbits. Using a dataset of video footage of n = 28 rabbits before (no pain) and after surgery (pain), we present an AI model for pain recognition using both the facial area and the body posture and reaching accuracy of above 87%. We apply a combination of 1 sec interval sampling with the Grayscale Short-Term stacking (GrayST) to incorporate temporal information for video classification at frame level and a frame selection technique to better exploit the availability of video data.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yamit Ehrlich
- Information Systems Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Li Naftaly
- Information Systems Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Miriam Alpin
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Shenhav Nadir
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Ilan Shimshoni
- Information Systems Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Renata H Pinho
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
| | - Stelio P L Luna
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, São Paulo State University (UNESP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anna Zamansky
- Information Systems Department, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
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Peppermüller PP, Gehring J, Zentrich E, Bleich A, Häger C, Buettner M. Grimace scale assessment during Citrobacter rodentium inflammation and colitis development in laboratory mice. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1173446. [PMID: 37342621 PMCID: PMC10277495 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1173446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Bacterial infections and chronic intestinal inflammations triggered by genetic susceptibility, environment or an imbalance in the intestinal microbiome are usually long-lasting and painful diseases in which the development and maintenance of these various intestinal inflammations is not yet fully understood, research is still needed. This still requires the use of animal models and is subject to the refinement principle of the 3Rs, to minimize suffering or pain perceived by the animals. With regard to this, the present study aimed at the recognition of pain using the mouse grimace scale (MGS) during chronic intestinal colitis due to dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) treatment or after infection with Citrobacter rodentium. Methods In this study 56 animals were included which were divided into 2 experimental groups: 1. chronic intestinal inflammation (n = 9) and 2. acute intestinal inflammation (with (n = 23) and without (n = 24) C. rodentium infection). Before the induction of intestinal inflammation in one of the animal models, mice underwent an abdominal surgery and the live MGS from the cage side and a clinical score were assessed before (bsl) and after 2, 4, 6, 8, 24, and 48 hours. Results The highest clinical score as well as the highest live MGS was detected 2 hours after surgery and almost no sign of pain or severity were detected after 24 and 48 hours. Eight weeks after abdominal surgery B6-Il4/Il10-/- mice were treated with DSS to trigger chronic intestinal colitis. During the acute phase as well as the chronic phase of the experiment, the live MGS and a clinical score were evaluated. The clinical score increased after DSS administration due to weight loss of the animals but no change of the live MGS was observed. In the second C57BL/6J mouse model, after infection with C. rodentium the clinical score increased but again, no increased score values in the live MGS was detectable. Discussion In conclusion, the live MGS detected post-operative pain, but indicated no pain during DSS-induced colitis or C. rodentium infection. In contrast, clinical scoring and here especially the weight loss revealed a decreased wellbeing due to surgery and intestinal inflammation.
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5
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Součková M, Přibylová L, Jurčová L, Chaloupková H. Behavioural reactions of rabbits during AAI sessions. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2023.105908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
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6
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Layton R, Layton D, Beggs D, Fisher A, Mansell P, Stanger KJ. The impact of stress and anesthesia on animal models of infectious disease. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1086003. [PMID: 36816193 PMCID: PMC9933909 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1086003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 01/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Stress and general anesthesia have an impact on the functional response of the organism due to the detrimental effects on cardiovascular, immunological, and metabolic function, which could limit the organism's response to an infectious event. Animal studies have formed an essential step in understanding and mitigating infectious diseases, as the complexities of physiology and immunity cannot yet be replicated in vivo. Using animals in research continues to come under increasing societal scrutiny, and it is therefore crucial that the welfare of animals used in disease research is optimized to meet both societal expectations and improve scientific outcomes. Everyday management and procedures in animal studies are known to cause stress, which can not only cause poorer welfare outcomes, but also introduces variables in disease studies. Whilst general anesthesia is necessary at times to reduce stress and enhance animal welfare in disease research, evidence of physiological and immunological disruption caused by general anesthesia is increasing. To better understand and quantify the effects of stress and anesthesia on disease study and welfare outcomes, utilizing the most appropriate animal monitoring strategies is imperative. This article aims to analyze recent scientific evidence about the impact of stress and anesthesia as uncontrolled variables, as well as reviewing monitoring strategies and technologies in animal models during infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Layton
- Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, CSIRO, Geelong, VIC, Australia,*Correspondence: Rachel Layton ✉
| | - Daniel Layton
- Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, CSIRO, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - David Beggs
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew Fisher
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Peter Mansell
- Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kelly J. Stanger
- Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, CSIRO, Geelong, VIC, Australia
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Alini M, Diwan AD, Erwin WM, Little CB, Melrose J. An update on animal models of intervertebral disc degeneration and low back pain: Exploring the potential of artificial intelligence to improve research analysis and development of prospective therapeutics. JOR Spine 2023; 6:e1230. [PMID: 36994457 PMCID: PMC10041392 DOI: 10.1002/jsp2.1230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Revised: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal models have been invaluable in the identification of molecular events occurring in and contributing to intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration and important therapeutic targets have been identified. Some outstanding animal models (murine, ovine, chondrodystrophoid canine) have been identified with their own strengths and weaknesses. The llama/alpaca, horse and kangaroo have emerged as new large species for IVD studies, and only time will tell if they will surpass the utility of existing models. The complexity of IVD degeneration poses difficulties in the selection of the most appropriate molecular target of many potential candidates, to focus on in the formulation of strategies to effect disc repair and regeneration. It may well be that many therapeutic objectives should be targeted simultaneously to effect a favorable outcome in human IVD degeneration. Use of animal models in isolation will not allow resolution of this complex issue and a paradigm shift and adoption of new methodologies is required to provide the next step forward in the determination of an effective repairative strategy for the IVD. AI has improved the accuracy and assessment of spinal imaging supporting clinical diagnostics and research efforts to better understand IVD degeneration and its treatment. Implementation of AI in the evaluation of histology data has improved the usefulness of a popular murine IVD model and could also be used in an ovine histopathological grading scheme that has been used to quantify degenerative IVD changes and stem cell mediated regeneration. These models are also attractive candidates for the evaluation of novel anti-oxidant compounds that counter inflammatory conditions in degenerate IVDs and promote IVD regeneration. Some of these compounds also have pain-relieving properties. AI has facilitated development of facial recognition pain assessment in animal IVD models offering the possibility of correlating the potential pain alleviating properties of some of these compounds with IVD regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Alini
- AO Research Institute Davos Platz Switzerland
| | - Ashish D. Diwan
- Spine Service, Department of Orthopedic Surgery, St. George & Sutherland Campus, Clinical School University of New South Wales Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - W. Mark Erwin
- Department of Surgery University of Toronto Ontario Canada
| | - Chirstopher B. Little
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratory Kolling Institute, Sydney University Faculty of Medicine and Health, Northern Sydney Area Health District, Royal North Shore Hospital St. Leonards New South Wales Australia
| | - James Melrose
- Raymond Purves Bone and Joint Research Laboratory Kolling Institute, Sydney University Faculty of Medicine and Health, Northern Sydney Area Health District, Royal North Shore Hospital St. Leonards New South Wales Australia
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering The University of New South Wales Sydney New South Wales Australia
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8
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Fischer-Tenhagen C, Meier J, Pohl A. "Do not look at me like that": Is the facial expression score reliable and accurate to evaluate pain in large domestic animals? A systematic review. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1002681. [PMID: 36561394 PMCID: PMC9763617 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1002681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Facial expression scoring has proven to be useful for pain evaluation in humans. In the last decade, equivalent scales have been developed for various animal species, including large domestic animals. The research question of this systematic review was as follows: is facial expression scoring (intervention) a valid method to evaluate pain (the outcome) in large domestic animals (population)? Method We searched two databases for relevant articles using the search string: "grimace scale" OR "facial expression" AND animal OR "farm animal" NOT "mouse" NOT "rat" NOT "laboratory animal." The risk of bias was estimated by adapting the Quality Assessment of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (QUADAS) checklist. Results The search strategy extracted 30 articles, with the major share on equids and a considerable number on cows, pigs, and sheep. Most studies evaluated facial action units (FAUs), including the eye region, the orbital region, the cheek or the chewing muscles, the lips, the mouth, and the position of the ears. Interobserver reliability was tested in 21 studies. Overall FAU reliability was substantial, but there were differences for individual FAUs. The position of the ear had almost perfect interobserver reliability (interclass coefficient (ICC): 0.73-0.97). Validity was tested in five studies with the reported accuracy values ranging from 68.2 to 80.0%. Discussion This systematic review revealed that facial expression scores provide an easy method for learning and reliable test results to identify whether an animal is in pain or distress. Many studies lack a reference standard and a true control group. Further research is warranted to evaluate the test accuracy of facial expression scoring as a live pen side test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carola Fischer-Tenhagen
- German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany,*Correspondence: Carola Fischer-Tenhagen
| | - Jennifer Meier
- German Centre for the Protection of Laboratory Animals (Bf3R), German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Alina Pohl
- Clinic of Animal Reproduction, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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9
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Aulehner K, Leenaars C, Buchecker V, Stirling H, Schönhoff K, King H, Häger C, Koska I, Jirkof P, Bleich A, Bankstahl M, Potschka H. Grimace scale, burrowing, and nest building for the assessment of post-surgical pain in mice and rats-A systematic review. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:930005. [PMID: 36277074 PMCID: PMC9583882 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.930005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies suggested an informative value of behavioral and grimace scale parameters for the detection of pain. However, the robustness and reliability of the parameters as well as the current extent of implementation are still largely unknown. In this study, we aimed to systematically analyze the current evidence-base of grimace scale, burrowing, and nest building for the assessment of post-surgical pain in mice and rats. The following platforms were searched for relevant articles: PubMed, Embase via Ovid, and Web of Science. Only full peer-reviewed studies that describe the grimace scale, burrowing, and/or nest building as pain parameters in the post-surgical phase in mice and/or rats were included. Information about the study design, animal characteristics, intervention characteristics, and outcome measures was extracted from identified publications. In total, 74 papers were included in this review. The majority of studies have been conducted in young adult C57BL/6J mice and Sprague Dawley and Wistar rats. While there is an apparent lack of information about young animals, some studies that analyzed the grimace scale in aged rats were identified. The majority of studies focused on laparotomy-associated pain. Only limited information is available about other types of surgical interventions. While an impact of surgery and an influence of analgesia were rather consistently reported in studies focusing on grimace scales, the number of studies that assessed respective effects was rather low for nest building and burrowing. Moreover, controversial findings were evident for the impact of analgesics on post-surgical nest building activity. Regarding analgesia, a monotherapeutic approach was identified in the vast majority of studies with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAID) drugs and opioids being most commonly used. In conclusion, most evidence exists for grimace scales, which were more frequently used to assess post-surgical pain in rodents than the other behavioral parameters. However, our findings also point to relevant knowledge gaps concerning the post-surgical application in different strains, age levels, and following different surgical procedures. Future efforts are also necessary to directly compare the sensitivity and robustness of different readout parameters applied for the assessment of nest building and burrowing activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Aulehner
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Cathalijn Leenaars
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hannover Medical School, Hanover, Germany
| | - Verena Buchecker
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Helen Stirling
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Katharina Schönhoff
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Hannah King
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Christine Häger
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hannover Medical School, Hanover, Germany
| | - Ines Koska
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Paulin Jirkof
- Office for Animal Welfare and 3Rs, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - André Bleich
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hannover Medical School, Hanover, Germany
| | - Marion Bankstahl
- Institute for Laboratory Animal Science, Hannover Medical School, Hanover, Germany
| | - Heidrun Potschka
- Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany,*Correspondence: Heidrun Potschka
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10
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Domínguez-Oliva A, Mota-Rojas D, Hernández-Avalos I, Mora-Medina P, Olmos-Hernández A, Verduzco-Mendoza A, Casas-Alvarado A, Whittaker AL. The neurobiology of pain and facial movements in rodents: Clinical applications and current research. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1016720. [PMID: 36246319 PMCID: PMC9556725 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1016720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the most controversial aspects of the use of animals in science is the production of pain. Pain is a central ethical concern. The activation of neural pathways involved in the pain response has physiological, endocrine, and behavioral consequences, that can affect both the health and welfare of the animals, as well as the validity of research. The strategy to prevent these consequences requires understanding of the nociception process, pain itself, and how assessment can be performed using validated, non-invasive methods. The study of facial expressions related to pain has undergone considerable study with the finding that certain movements of the facial muscles (called facial action units) are associated with the presence and intensity of pain. This review, focused on rodents, discusses the neurobiology of facial expressions, clinical applications, and current research designed to better understand pain and the nociceptive pathway as a strategy for implementing refinement in biomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Domínguez-Oliva
- Master in Science Program “Maestría en Ciencias Agropecuarias”, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Daniel Mota-Rojas
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assesment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Daniel Mota-Rojas
| | - Ismael Hernández-Avalos
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuautitlán Izcalli, Mexico
| | - Patricia Mora-Medina
- Facultad de Estudios Superiores Cuautitlán, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Cuautitlán Izcalli, Mexico
| | - Adriana Olmos-Hernández
- Division of Biotechnology-Bioterio and Experimental Surgery, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Antonio Verduzco-Mendoza
- Division of Biotechnology-Bioterio and Experimental Surgery, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Casas-Alvarado
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assesment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Alexandra L. Whittaker
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, Australia
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Paterson EA, Turner PV. Challenges with Assessing and Treating Pain in Research Primates: A Focused Survey and Literature Review. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12172304. [PMID: 36078024 PMCID: PMC9455027 DOI: 10.3390/ani12172304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2022] [Revised: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Research primates may undergo surgical procedures making effective pain management essential to ensure good animal welfare and unbiased scientific data. Adequate pain mitigation is dependent on whether veterinarians, technicians, researchers, and caregivers can recognize and assess pain, as well as the availability of efficacious therapeutics. A survey was conducted to evaluate primate veterinary approaches to pain assessment and alleviation, as well as expressed challenges for adequately managing primate pain. The survey (n = 93 respondents) collected information regarding institutional policies and procedures for pain recognition, methods used for pain relief, and perceived levels of confidence in primate pain assessment. Results indicated that 71% (n = 60) of respondents worked at institutions that were without formal experimental pain assessment policies. Pain assessment methods were consistent across respondents with the majority evaluating pain based on changes in general activity levels (100%, n = 86) and food consumption (97%, n = 84). Self-reported confidence in recognizing and managing pain ranged from slightly confident to highly confident, and there was a commonly expressed concern about the lack of objective pain assessment tools and science-based evidence regarding therapeutic recommendations of analgesics for research primates. These opinions correspond with significant gaps in the primate pain management literature, including limited specific pharmacokinetic data and efficacy testing for commonly used analgesics in research primate species as well as limited research on objective and specific measures of pain in research primates. These results demonstrate that there are inconsistencies in institutional policies and procedures surrounding pain management in research primates and a lack of objective pain assessment methods. Demonstrating the gaps and challenges in primate pain management can inform guideline development and suggest areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilie A Paterson
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 0C4, Canada
| | - Patricia V Turner
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 0C4, Canada
- Global Animal Welfare and Training, Charles River, Wilmington, MA 01887, USA
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12
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Ask K, Andersen PH, Tamminen LM, Rhodin M, Hernlund E. Performance of four equine pain scales and their association to movement asymmetry in horses with induced orthopedic pain. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:938022. [PMID: 36032285 PMCID: PMC9411665 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.938022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective This study investigated the relationship between orthopedic pain experienced at rest, and degree of movement asymmetry during trot in horses with induced reversible acute arthritis. Orthopedic pain was assessed with the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS), the Equine Utrecht University Scale of Facial Assessment of Pain (EQUUS-FAP), the Equine Pain Scale (EPS), and the Composite Orthopedic Pain Scale (CPS). Reliability and diagnostic accuracy were evaluated with intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and area under the curve (AUC). Study design and animals Eight healthy horses were included in this experimental study, with each horse acting as its own control. Methods Orthopedic pain was induced by intra-articular lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration. Serial pain assessments were performed before induction and during pain progression and regression, where three observers independently and simultaneously assessed pain at rest with the four scales. Movement asymmetry was measured once before induction and a minimum of four times after induction, using objective gait analysis. Results On average 6.6 (standard deviation 1.2) objective gait analyses and 12.1 (2.4) pain assessments were performed per horse. The ICC for each scale was 0.75 (CPS), 0.65 (EPS), 0.52 (HGS), and 0.43 (EQUUS-FAP). Total pain scores of all scales were significantly associated with an increase in movement asymmetry (R2 values ranging from −0.0649 to 0.493); with CPS pain scores being most closely associated with movement asymmetry. AUC varied between scales and observers, and CPS was the only scale where all observers had a good diagnostic accuracy (AUC > 0.72). Conclusions and clinical relevance This study identified significant associations between pain experienced at rest and degree of movement asymmetry for all scales. Pain scores obtained using CPS were most closely associated with movement asymmetry. CPS was also the most accurate and reliable pain scale. All scales had varying linear and non-linear relations between total pain scores and movement asymmetry, illustrating challenges with orthopedic pain assessment during rest in subtly lame horses since movement asymmetry needs to be rather high before total pain score increase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Ask
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Katrina Ask
| | - Pia Haubro Andersen
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Lena-Mari Tamminen
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Marie Rhodin
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Elin Hernlund
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Biochemistry, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden
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13
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Coria-Avila GA, Pfaus JG, Orihuela A, Domínguez-Oliva A, José-Pérez N, Hernández LA, Mota-Rojas D. The Neurobiology of Behavior and Its Applicability for Animal Welfare: A Review. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12070928. [PMID: 35405916 PMCID: PMC8997080 DOI: 10.3390/ani12070928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Animal welfare is the result of physical and psychological well-being and is expected to occur if animals are free: (1) from hunger, thirst and malnutrition, (2) from discomfort, (3) from pain, (4) to express normal behavior, and (5) from fear and distress. Nevertheless, well-being is not a constant state but rather the result of certain brain dynamics underlying innate motivated behaviors and learned responses. Thus, by understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior we fathom how emotions and well-being occur in the brain. Herein, we discuss the potential applicability of this approach for animal welfare. First, we provide a general view of the basic responses coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. Then, we discuss how those stimuli mediate activity in seven neurobiological systems that evoke innate emotional and behavioral responses that directly influence well-being and biological fitness. Finally, we discuss the basic mechanisms of learning and how it affects motivated responses and welfare. Abstract Understanding the foundations of the neurobiology of behavior and well-being can help us better achieve animal welfare. Behavior is the expression of several physiological, endocrine, motor and emotional responses that are coordinated by the central nervous system from the processing of internal and external stimuli. In mammals, seven basic emotional systems have been described that when activated by the right stimuli evoke positive or negative innate responses that evolved to facilitate biological fitness. This review describes the process of how those neurobiological systems can directly influence animal welfare. We also describe examples of the interaction between primary (innate) and secondary (learned) processes that influence behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genaro A. Coria-Avila
- Instituto de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Avenida Luis Castelazo S/N, Col. Industrial Ánimas, Xalapa 91190, Mexico;
- Correspondence: (G.A.C.-A.); (D.M.-R.)
| | - James G. Pfaus
- Instituto de Investigaciones Cerebrales, Universidad Veracruzana, Avenida Luis Castelazo S/N, Col. Industrial Ánimas, Xalapa 91190, Mexico;
- Department of Psychology and Life Sciences, Charles University, 182 00 Prague, Czech Republic
- Czech National Institute of Mental Health, 250 67 Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Agustín Orihuela
- Facultad de Ciencias Agropecuarias, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca 62209, Mexico;
| | - Adriana Domínguez-Oliva
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Unidad Xochimilco, Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.D.-O.); (N.J.-P.); (L.A.H.)
| | - Nancy José-Pérez
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Unidad Xochimilco, Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.D.-O.); (N.J.-P.); (L.A.H.)
| | - Laura Astrid Hernández
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Unidad Xochimilco, Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.D.-O.); (N.J.-P.); (L.A.H.)
| | - Daniel Mota-Rojas
- Neurophysiology, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Unidad Xochimilco, Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.D.-O.); (N.J.-P.); (L.A.H.)
- Correspondence: (G.A.C.-A.); (D.M.-R.)
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Bennett K, Lewis K. Sedation and Anesthesia in Rodents. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2021; 25:211-255. [PMID: 34823692 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2021.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Sedation and anesthesia in rodent species are complex due to their wide species variation, small size, and metabolism. This review article covers recent advances in sedation and anesthesia as well as an updated drug formulary for sedation protocols. Setup, equipment, monitoring, maintenance, and recovery are reviewed as well as species-specific anatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Bennett
- Avian & Exotics Service, Bluepearl Emergency and Specialty Hospital, 7414 S Tamiami Trl. Sarasota, FL 34231, USA.
| | - Kerrie Lewis
- Pebble Creek Animal Hospital, 19440 Bruce B Downs Boulevard, Tampa, FL 33647, USA
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Mota-Rojas D, Marcet-Rius M, Ogi A, Hernández-Ávalos I, Mariti C, Martínez-Burnes J, Mora-Medina P, Casas A, Domínguez A, Reyes B, Gazzano A. Current Advances in Assessment of Dog's Emotions, Facial Expressions, and Their Use for Clinical Recognition of Pain. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:3334. [PMID: 34828066 PMCID: PMC8614696 DOI: 10.3390/ani11113334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Animals' facial expressions are involuntary responses that serve to communicate the emotions that individuals feel. Due to their close co-existence with humans, broad attention has been given to identifying these expressions in certain species, especially dogs. This review aims to analyze and discuss the advances in identifying the facial expressions of domestic dogs and their clinical utility in recognizing pain as a method to improve daily practice and, in an accessible and effective way, assess the health outcome of dogs. This study focuses on aspects related to the anatomy and physiology of facial expressions in dogs, their emotions, and evaluations of their eyebrows, eyes, lips, and ear positions as changes that reflect pain or nociception. In this regard, research has found that dogs have anatomical configurations that allow them to generate changes in their expressions that similar canids-wolves, for example-cannot produce. Additionally, dogs can perceive emotions similar to those of their human tutors due to close human-animal interaction. This phenomenon-called "emotional contagion"-is triggered precisely by the dog's capacity to identify their owners' gestures and then react by emitting responses with either similar or opposed expressions that correspond to positive or negative stimuli, respectively. In conclusion, facial expressions are essential to maintaining social interaction between dogs and other species, as in their bond with humans. Moreover, this provides valuable information on emotions and the perception of pain, so in dogs, they can serve as valuable elements for recognizing and evaluating pain in clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Mota-Rojas
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.C.); (A.D.); (B.R.)
| | - Míriam Marcet-Rius
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare Department, IRSEA (Research Institute in Semiochemistry and Applied Ethology), Quartier Salignan, 84400 Apt, France;
| | - Asahi Ogi
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (A.O.); (C.M.); (A.G.)
| | - Ismael Hernández-Ávalos
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clinical Pharmacology and Veterinary Anaesthesia, FESC, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuautitlán Izcalli 54714, Mexico;
| | - Chiara Mariti
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (A.O.); (C.M.); (A.G.)
| | - Julio Martínez-Burnes
- Animal Health Group, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Victoria City 87000, Mexico;
| | - Patricia Mora-Medina
- Department of Livestock Science, FESC, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Cuautitlán Izcalli 54714, Mexico;
| | - Alejandro Casas
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.C.); (A.D.); (B.R.)
| | - Adriana Domínguez
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.C.); (A.D.); (B.R.)
| | - Brenda Reyes
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Animal Welfare Assessment, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM), Mexico City 04960, Mexico; (A.C.); (A.D.); (B.R.)
| | - Angelo Gazzano
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, 56124 Pisa, Italy; (A.O.); (C.M.); (A.G.)
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16
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Hernández-Avalos I, Mota-Rojas D, Mendoza-Flores JE, Casas-Alvarado A, Flores-Padilla K, Miranda-Cortes AE, Torres-Bernal F, Gómez-Prado J, Mora-Medina P. Nociceptive pain and anxiety in equines: Physiological and behavioral alterations. Vet World 2021; 14:2984-2995. [PMID: 35017848 PMCID: PMC8743789 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2021.2984-2995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Pain and anxiety are two of the most important concerns in clinical veterinary medicine because they arise as consequences of multiple factors that can severely affect animal welfare. The aim of the present review was to provide a description and interpretation of the physiological and behavioral alterations associated with pain and anxiety in equines. To this end, we conducted an extensive review of diverse sources on the topic. The article begins by describing the neurophysiological pathway of pain, followed by a discussion of the importance of the limbic system in responses to pain and anxiety, since prolonged exposure to situations that cause stress and pain generates such physiological changes as tachycardia, tachypnea, hypertension, hyperthermia, and heart rate variability (HRV), often accompanied by altered emotional states, deficient rest, and even aggressiveness. In the long term, animals may show deficiencies in their ability to deal with changes in the environment due to alterations in the functioning of their immune, nervous, and endocrinologic systems. In conclusion, pain and anxiety directly impact the homeostasis of organisms, so it is necessary to conduct objective evaluations of both sensations using behavioral scales, like the horse grimace scale, complemented by assessments of blood biomarkers to analyze their correlation with physiological parameters: Heart rate, respiratory rate, HRV, theparasympathetic tone activity index, lactate and glucose levels, and temperature. Additional tools - infrared thermography, for example - can also be used in these efforts to improve the quality of life and welfare of horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. Hernández-Avalos
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clinical Pharmacology and Veterinary Anesthesia, Faculty of Higher Studies Cuautitlán FESC, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, State of Mexico 54714, Mexico
| | - D. Mota-Rojas
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Assessment of Welfare in Domestic Animals, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City 04960, Mexico
| | - J. E. Mendoza-Flores
- Equine Hospital Faculty of Higher Studies Cuautitlán FESC, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, State of Mexico 54714, Mexico
| | - A. Casas-Alvarado
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Assessment of Welfare in Domestic Animals, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City 04960, Mexico
| | - K. Flores-Padilla
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Assessment of Welfare in Domestic Animals, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City 04960, Mexico
| | - A. E. Miranda-Cortes
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clinical Pharmacology and Veterinary Anesthesia, Faculty of Higher Studies Cuautitlán FESC, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, State of Mexico 54714, Mexico
| | - F. Torres-Bernal
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Assessment of Welfare in Domestic Animals, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City 04960, Mexico
| | - J. Gómez-Prado
- Neurophysiology of Pain, Behavior and Assessment of Welfare in Domestic Animals, DPAA, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mexico City 04960, Mexico
| | - P. Mora-Medina
- Department of Livestock Sciences, Animal Welfare, FESC, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, State of Mexico 54714, Mexico
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Junior, Lai YS, Nguyen HT, Salmanida FP, Chang KT. MERTK +/hi M2c Macrophages Induced by Baicalin Alleviate Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:10604. [PMID: 34638941 PMCID: PMC8508959 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most common liver diseases worldwide. An accumulation of fat, followed by inflammation, is the major cause of NAFLD progression. During inflammation, macrophages are the most abundant immune cells recruited to the site of injury. Macrophages are classified into "proinflammatory" M1 macrophages, and "anti-inflammatory" M2 macrophages. In NAFLD, M1 macrophages are the most prominent macrophages that lead to an excessive inflammatory response. Previously, we found that baicalin could polarize macrophages into anti-inflammatory M2c subtype macrophages with an increased level of MERTK expression. Several studies have also shown a strong correlation between MERTK expression and cholesterol efflux, efferocytosis, as well as phagocytosis capability. Therefore, in this study, we aim to elucidate the potential and efficacy of mononuclear-cell (MNC)-derived MERTK+/hi M2c macrophages induced by baicalin as a cell-based therapy for NAFLD treatment. In our results, we have demonstrated that a MERTK+/hi M2c macrophage injection to NAFLD mice contributes to an increased level of serum HDL secretion in the liver, a decline in the circulating CD4+CD25- and CD8+CD25- T cells and lowers the total NAFLD pathological score by lessening the inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis. In the liver, profibrotic COL1A1 and FN, proinflammation TNFα, as well as the regulator of lipid metabolism PPARɣ expression, were also downregulated after injection. In parallel, the transcriptomic profiles of the injected MERTK+/hi M2c macrophages showed that the various genes directly or indirectly involved in NAFLD progression (e.g., SERPINE1, FADS2) were also suppressed. Downregulation of cytokines and inflammation-associated genes, such as CCR5, may promote a pro-resolving milieu in the NAFLD liver. Altogether, cell-based therapy using MERTK+/hi M2c macrophages is promising, as it ameliorates NAFLD in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junior
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan; (J.); (H.T.N.); (F.P.S.)
| | - Yin-Siew Lai
- Research Center for Animal Biologics, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan;
| | - Huyen Thi Nguyen
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan; (J.); (H.T.N.); (F.P.S.)
| | - Farrah P. Salmanida
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan; (J.); (H.T.N.); (F.P.S.)
| | - Ko-Tung Chang
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan; (J.); (H.T.N.); (F.P.S.)
- Research Center for Animal Biologics, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan;
- Flow Cytometry Center, Precision Instruments Center, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 91201, Taiwan
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19
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Measurement properties of grimace scales for pain assessment in non-human mammals: a systematic review. Pain 2021; 163:e697-e714. [PMID: 34510132 DOI: 10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Facial expressions of pain have been identified in several animal species. The aim of this systematic review was to provide evidence on the measurement properties of grimace scales for pain assessment. The protocol was registered (SyRF#21-Nov-2019) and the study is reported according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies reporting the development, validation, and the assessment of measurement properties of grimace scales were included. Data extraction and assessment were performed by two investigators, following the Consensus-based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) guidelines. Six categories of measurement properties were assessed: internal consistency, reliability, measurement error, criterion and construct validity, and responsiveness. Overall strength of evidence (high, moderate, low) of each instrument was based on methodological quality, number of studies and studies' findings. Twelve scales for nine species were included (mice, rats, rabbits, horses, piglets, sheep/lamb, ferrets, cats and donkeys). Considerable variability regarding their development and measurement properties was observed. The Mouse, Rat, Horse and Feline Grimace Scales exhibited high level of evidence. The Rabbit, Lamb, Piglet and Ferret Grimace Scales and Sheep Pain Facial Expression Scale exhibited moderate level of evidence. The Sheep Grimace Scale, EQUUS-FAP and EQUUS-Donkey-FAP exhibited low level of evidence for measurement properties. Construct validity was the most reported measurement property. Reliability and other forms of validity have been understudied. This systematic review identified gaps in knowledge on the measurement properties of grimace scales. Further studies should focus on improving psychometric testing, instrument refinement and the use of grimace scales for pain assessment in non-human mammals.
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Happy Cow or Thinking Pig? WUR Wolf—Facial Coding Platform for Measuring Emotions in Farm Animals. AI 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/ai2030021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Emotions play an indicative and informative role in the investigation of farm animal behaviors. Systems that respond and can measure emotions provide a natural user interface in enabling the digitalization of animal welfare platforms. The faces of farm animals can be one of the richest channels for expressing emotions. WUR Wolf (Wageningen University & Research: Wolf Mascot), a real-time facial recognition platform that can automatically code the emotions of farm animals, is presented in this study. The developed Python-based algorithms detect and track the facial features of cows and pigs, analyze the appearance, ear postures, and eye white regions, and correlate these with the mental/emotional states of the farm animals. The system is trained on a dataset of facial features of images of farm animals collected in over six farms and has been optimized to operate with an average accuracy of 85%. From these, the emotional states of animals in real time are determined. The software detects 13 facial actions and an inferred nine emotional states, including whether the animal is aggressive, calm, or neutral. A real-time emotion recognition system based on YoloV3, a Faster YoloV4-based facial detection platform and an ensemble Convolutional Neural Networks (RCNN) is presented. Detecting facial features of farm animals simultaneously in real time enables many new interfaces for automated decision-making tools for livestock farmers. Emotion sensing offers a vast potential for improving animal welfare and animal–human interactions.
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Whittaker AL, Liu Y, Barker TH. Methods Used and Application of the Mouse Grimace Scale in Biomedical Research 10 Years on: A Scoping Review. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11030673. [PMID: 33802463 PMCID: PMC7999303 DOI: 10.3390/ani11030673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Mouse Grimace Scale (MGS) was developed 10 years ago as a method for assessing pain through the characterisation of changes in five facial features or action units. The strength of the technique is that it is proposed to be a measure of spontaneous or non-evoked pain. The time is opportune to map all of the research into the MGS, with a particular focus on the methods used and the technique's utility across a range of mouse models. A comprehensive scoping review of the academic literature was performed. A total of 48 articles met our inclusion criteria and were included in this review. The MGS has been employed mainly in the evaluation of acute pain, particularly in the pain and neuroscience research fields. There has, however, been use of the technique in a wide range of fields, and based on limited study it does appear to have utility for pain assessment across a spectrum of animal models. Use of the method allows the detection of pain of a longer duration, up to a month post initial insult. There has been less use of the technique using real-time methods and this is an area in need of further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra L. Whittaker
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Roseworthy Campus, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy 5371, Australia;
- Correspondence:
| | - Yifan Liu
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Roseworthy Campus, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy 5371, Australia;
| | - Timothy H. Barker
- JBI, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia;
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22
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Musk GC. Refinements to Animal Models for Biomedical Research. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10122425. [PMID: 33352864 PMCID: PMC7766876 DOI: 10.3390/ani10122425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle C Musk
- Animal Care Services, University of Western Australia, Perth 6107, Australia
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