Perinatal Exposure to Tartrazine Triggers Oxidative Stress and Neurobehavioral Alterations in Mice Offspring

Sunset Yellow induced biochemical and histopathological alterations in rat brain sub-regions

Sunset Yellow, a synthetic orange azo food dye was examined in this study for its impact on the Wistar rat brain sub-regions. The dye was administered orally to weanling rats at the Acceptable Daily Intake level (4 mg/kg/bw) for 40 days, and brain sub-regions viz., frontal cortex, cerebellum and hippocampus were examined for biochemical and histopathological changes. The results showed a significant decrease in tissue protein levels, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activity, as well as a significant increase in lipid peroxide levels in all brain sub-regions. Glutathione-S-transferase and Glutathione Reductase activities decreased, while Glutathione peroxidase activity increased. The biogenic amine levels and Acetylcholinesterase activity were also altered, with the frontal cortex and hippocampus being the most affected. Additionally, the dye caused histopathological damage in all brain sub-regions examined. This study indicates that the ADI level of Sunset Yellow may adversely affect brain tissue by causing oxidative damage.

Contamination of textile dyes in aquatic environment: Adverse impacts on aquatic ecosystem and human health, and its management using bioremediation

Textile dyes are the burgeoning environmental contaminants across the world. They might be directly disposed of from textile industries into the aquatic bodies, which act as the direct source for the entire ecosystem, ultimately impacting the human beings. Hence, it is essential to dissect the potential adverse outcomes of textile dye exposure on aquatic plants, aquatic fauna, terrestrial entities, and humans. Analysis of appropriate literature has revealed that textile dye effluents could affect the aquatic biota by disrupting their growth and reproduction. Various aquatic organisms are targeted by textile dye effluents. In such organisms, these chemicals affect their development, behavior, and induce oxidative stress. General populations of humans are exposed to textile dyes via the food chain and drinking contaminated water. In humans, textile dyes are biotransformed into electrophilic intermediates and aromatic amines by the enzymes of the cytochrome family. Textile dyes and their biotransformed products form the DNA and protein adducts at sub-cellular moiety. Moreover, these compounds catalyze the production of free radicals and oxidative stress, and trigger the apoptotic cascades to produce lesions in multiple organs. In addition, textile dyes modulate epigenetic factors like DNA methyltransferase and histone deacetylase to promote carcinogenesis. Several bioremediation approaches involving algae, fungi, bacteria, biomembrane filtration techniques, etc., have been tested and some other hybrid systems are currently under investigation to treat textile dye effluents. However, many such approaches are at the trial stage and require further research to develop more efficient, cost-effective, and easy-to-handle techniques.

Ginkgo biloba extract protects against tartrazine-induced testicular toxicity in rats: involvement of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms

The use of additives, especially colorants, in food and pharmaceutical industry is increasing dramatically. Currently, additives are classified as contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Concerns have been raised about the potential hazards of food additives to reproductive organs and fertility. The present study investigates the reproductive toxicity of tartrazine (TRZ), a synthetic colorant, in male rats and aims to explore the curative effect of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb) against TRZ-induced testicular toxicity. Twenty-four rats were divided into four groups: the control (0.5 ml distilled water), the EGb group (100 mg/kg EGb alone), the TRZ group (7.5 mg/kg TRZ alone), and the TRZ-EGb group (7.5 mg/kg TRZ plus 100 mg/kg EGb). The doses were administered orally in distilled water once daily for 28 days. Toxicity studies of TRZ investigated testicular redox state, serum gonadotropins, and testosterone levels, testicular 17 ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity, sperm count and quality, levels of inflammatory cytokines, and caspase-3 expression as an apoptotic marker. Also, histopathological alterations of the testes were examined. TRZ significantly affected the testicular redox status as indicated by the increase in malondialdehyde and the decrease in reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. It also disrupted serum gonadotropins (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone) and testosterone levels and the activity of testicular 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Additionally, TRZ adversely affected sperm count, motility, viability, and abnormality. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and expression of caspase-3 were increased in the testes. Histopathological examination of the testes supported the alterations mentioned above. Administration of EGb significantly ameliorated TRZ-induced testicular toxicity in rats. In conclusion, EGb protected against TRZ-induced testicular toxicity through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms.

Azo food dye neurotoxicity in rats: A neurobehavioral, biochemical, and histopathological study

Azo Food dyes (AFDs), which are widely used in the food industry, may be associated with adverse health effects. We have investigated the effects of the AFDs metanil yellow (MY), malachite green (MG), and sudan III (SIII) on cognitive impairment, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuro-enzyme activities, and histopathology in rats. Rats treated with MY (430 mg/kg), MG (13.75 mg/kg), SIII (250 mg/kg), and a mixture (MY 143.33 + MG 4.52 + SIII 83.33 mg/kg) p.o. for 60 d showed significant learning and memory impairments. Significant biochemical changes were observed in the rat frontal cortex and hippocampus: increases in lipid peroxidation and the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE); decreases in the level of reduced glutathione and the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and mitochondrial complexes I and II. Histological damage to brain neurons accompanied the learning and memory impairments and was linked with other biochemical and neurochemical alterations.

Azo dyes in the food industry: Features, classification, toxicity, alternatives, and regulation

Azo dyes, including Tartrazine, Sunset Yellow, and Carmoisine, are added to foods to provide color, but they have no value with regard to nutrition, food preservation, or health benefits. Because of their availability, affordability, stability, and low cost, and because they provide intense coloration to the product without contributing unwanted flavors, the food industry often prefers to use synthetic azo dyes rather than natural colorants. Food dyes have been tested by regulatory agencies responsible for guaranteeing consumer safety. Nevertheless, the safety of these colorants remains controversial; they have been associated with adverse effects, particularly due to the reduction and cleavage of the azo bond. Here, we review the features, classification, regulation, toxicity, and alternatives to the use of azo dyes in food.

Tartrazine Modifies the Activity of DNMT and HDAC Genes-Is This a Link between Cancer and Neurological Disorders?

In recent years, artificial additives, especially synthetic food colorants, were found to demonstrate wider properties compared to their natural equivalents; however, their health impact is still not totally mapped. Our study aimed to determine the long-term (30 and 90 days) exposure effect of one of the commonly used artificial food colorants, tartrazine, on NMRI mice. The applied dose of tartrazine referred to the human equivalent dose for acceptable daily intake (ADI). Further, we evaluated its impact on the transcription of a range of epigenetic effectors, members of the DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) as well as histone deacetylase (HDAC) families. Following the exposure, organ biopsies were collected from the lungs, kidneys, liver, and spleen, and the gene expression levels were determined by real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR). Our results demonstrated significant upregulation of genes in the tested organs in various patterns followed by the intake of tartrazine on ADI. Since DNMT and HDAC genes are involved in different steps of carcinogenesis, have roles in the development of neurological disorders and the effect of dose of everyday exposure is rarely studied, further investigation is warranted to study these possible associations.

Effects of ultra-processed foods on the microbiota-gut-brain axis: The bread-and-butter issue

The topic of gut microbiota and the microbiota-gut-brain (MGB) axis has become the forefront of research and reports in the past few years. The gut microbiota is a dynamic interface between the environment, food, and the host, reflecting the health status as well as maintaining normal physiological metabolism. Modern ultra-processed foods (UPF) contain large quantities of saturated and trans fat, added sugar, salt, and food additives that seriously affect the gut and physical health. In addition, these unhealthy components directly cause changes in gut microbiota functions and microbial metabolism, subsequently having the potential to impact the neural network. This paper reviews an overview of the link between UPF ingredients and the MGB axis. Considerable studies have examined that high intake of trans fat, added sugar and salt have deleterious effects on gut and brain functions, but relatively less focus has been placed on the impact of food additives on the MGB axis. Data from several studies suggest that food additives might be linked to metabolic diseases and inflammation. They may also alter the gut microbiota composition and microbial metabolites, which potentially affect cognition and behavior. Therefore, we emphasize that food additives including emulsifiers, artificial sweeteners, colorants, and preservatives interact with the gut microbiota and their possible effects on altering the brain and behavior based on the latest research. Future studies should further investigate whether gut dysbiosis mediates the effect of UPF on brain diseases and behavior. This thesis here sheds new light on future research pointing to the potentially detrimental effects of processed food consumption on brain health.

Riboflavin attenuates tartrazine toxicity in the cerebellar cortex of adult albino rat

Tartrazine is a synthetic yellowish dye considered one of the most common food colorants. Extensive usage of tartrazine in humans led to harmful health impacts. To investigate the impact of tartrazine administration on the cerebellum and to assess the potential role of riboflavin co-administration in the adult male albino rat. Four groups of adult albino rats were included in this study. Group I was supplied with distilled water. Group II was supplied tartrazine orally at a dose of 7.5 mg/kg BW dissolved in distilled water. Group III was supplied with tartrazine at the same previously mentioned dose and riboflavin orally at a dose of 25 mg/kg BW dissolved in distilled water. Group IV was supplied with riboflavin at the same previously mentioned dose. The study was conducted for 30 days then rats were sacrificed, weighted and the cerebella extracted and handled for light, ultrastructural and immunohistochemical evaluation. It was found with tartrazine treatment focal areas of Purkinje cell loss leaving empty spaces, a broad spread of neuronal affection to the degree of the disappearance of some of the granular cells, reduced the thickness of the molecular and granular layers, and strong positive GFAP immunoreactions. With riboflavin coadministration restored continuous Purkinje layer with normal appeared Purkinje cells, but some cells were still shrunken and vacuolated as well as the molecular and granular cell layers appeared normal. Tartrazine had deleterious effects on the cerebellar cytoarchitecture, and riboflavin co-administration alleviated these neurotoxic effects.

Post-weaning exposure to Sunset Yellow FCF induces behavioral impairment and structural changes in the adult rat medial prefrontal cortex: protective effects of Coenzyme Q10

Sunset Yellow FCF (E110) is a water soluble synthetic dye that has adverse neurobehavioral effects. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) is known as a neuroprotective agent. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of post-weaning exposure to Sunset Yellow FCF on behavioral and structural changes in the adult rat medial prefrontal cortex and the protective effects of CoQ10. The weanling rats were randomly divided into six groups: distilled water, CoQ10 (10 mg/kg/day), and low (2.5 mg/kg/day), and high (70 mg/kg/day) doses of Sunset Yellow FCF with or without CoQ10 consumption for six weeks. A battery of behavioral tests including open field and Morris water maze tests were done at the end of the 6th week, and then the animals' brains were removed for stereological methods. Our finding indicated that the high dose of Sunset Yellow FCF led to a reduced total volume of mPFC (15.16%), especially in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) region (21.96%), along with loss of neurons (32%) and glial cells (37%), which was associated with higher anxiety behavior and loss in spatial memory. However, CoQ10 prevented the neural loss and glial cells, improved anxiety like behaviors and memory impairment. On the other hand, the acceptable daily dose (low dose of Sunset Yellow FCF) did not show a discernible effect on the same parameters. This study showed that the CoQ10 can protect the alteration in mPFC structure and behavioral changes of the rats exposed to high dose of Sunset Yellow FCF.

Non-permitted food colorants induced neurotoxicity in cerebellum of rat brain

Food colorants are important food additives that not only enhance the appearance of food but also appetite. These can be obtained from natural and synthetic sources, but synthetic sources are more popular, efficient, and potential. Non-permitted food colorants (NPFCs) are banned, but their injudicious use in developing countries associated with various adverse health effects. They have potentially toxic effects on the body organs like the brain, liver, kidney, spleen, gut, etc. In view of their toxicity pattern, the present study aims to investigate the effect of three NPFCs (MY: Metanil yellow; MG: Malachite green; SIII: Sudan III) on oxidative stress, mitochondrial complexes, neurochemicals, and histological changes in the cerebellum of rats. Rats treated with MY (430 mg/kg), MG (13.75 mg/kg), SIII (250 mg/kg), and their mixtures (YGR) (MY 143.33 + MG 4.52 + SIII 83.33 mg/kg) p.o. for 60 days showed a significant increase in lipid peroxidation and decreased level of reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase activity as compared to controls. An increase in the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and a significant decrease in the activity of monoamine oxidase-B (MAO-B) and mitochondrial complex I and II was also observed in NPFCs treated rats as compared to controls. Further, the histological study also revealed the loss of Purkinje neurons in the cerebellum of the rat brain. The results of the present study indicate that NPFCs exposure to rats enhances oxidative stress and alters the activity of neurochemicals and mitochondrial complexes which could further lead to neuronal loss and behavioral dysfunctions.

Involvement of striatal oxido-inflammatory, nitrosative and decreased cholinergic activity in neurobehavioral alteration in adult rat model with oral co-exposure to erythrosine and tartrazine

Overuse or overconsumption of food additive or colorant cannot be ignored in our society and there are several reports of it harmful effect on the body system. This study investigated the toxicity effect of tartrazine and erythrosine (ET, 50:50) on neurobehavioral alteration, striatal oxido-nitrosative and pro-inflammatory stress and striatal acetylcholinesterase activity in experimental rat model. Rats were co-exposed to ET (2 mg/kg, 6 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg) and distilled water (control), p.o for 6 weeks. The change in neurobehavioral function (Open field test, Forced swimming test and Tail suspension test), Lipid peroxidation (Malonaldehyde, MDA), Antioxidants (Glutathione, GSH; Catalase, CAT) Nitrite, Pro-inflammatory cytokine (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, TNF-α) and Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity were evaluated. Results showed significant decrease in neurobehavioral functions after co-exposure to ET. Moreover, there were significant increase in MDA and Nitrite level, significant decrease in the concentration of GSH and CAT and a significant increase TNF-α concentration and AChE activity after co-exposure to ET. Oral co-exposure to tartrazine and erythrosine induced decrease in locomotion and exploration, increase anxiety and depression-like behavior and altered the cholinergic system through upregulation of oxido-nitrosative stress, pro-inflammatory cytokine and acetylcholinesterase activity.

Anxiogenic and memory impairment effect of food color exposure: upregulation of oxido-neuroinflammatory markers and acetyl-cholinestrase activity in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus

Erythrosine and tartrazine are one of the synthetic azo dye mostly consumed in food, drugs and other industrial compounds. This study was designed to investigate the adverse effect of combine erythrosine and tartrazine on cognitive and neurobehavioral functions, pro-oxidants, endogenous antioxidants, cholinergic system and pro-inflammatory cytokines in rats. Erythrosine and tartrazine (2 mg/kg, 6 mg/kg, and 10 mg/kg, b.w., p.o, 50:50) was administered to rats (n = 6) for 6 weeks. Memory and neurobehavioral assessment using Novel object recognition test (NORT) and Elevated plus maze (EPM) and biochemical (pro-oxidants and anti-oxidant enzymes) and pro-inflammatory cytokine measurement from the brain sub regions namely, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex were done at the end of treatment. The results showed (p < 0.05) significant decreased memory and neurobehavioral function, increased acetyl-cholinesterase and pro-oxidants activity (Malonaldehyde level and Nitrite), decreased endogenous anti-oxidants (Glutathione and Catalase) and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, TNF-α). We suggested that the mechanism by which this oxidative and neuro-inflammatory damage and cholinergic system alteration occur might be related to the release of metabolite in fission of the azo dyes of the combined erythrosine and tartrazine administration in the animals. However, we concluded on these findings that erythrosine and tartrazine dyes significantly provoke the release of oxido-nitrergic and neuroinflammatory stress markers and also may incite acetyl-cholinesterase activities in different brain regions leading to memory and neurobehavioral impairment.

Morphological and Behavioral Effects in Zebrafish Embryos after Exposure to Smoke Dyes

Solvent Violet 47 (SV47) and Disperse Blue 14 (DB14) are two anthraquinone dyes that were previously used in different formulations for the production of violet-colored smoke. Both dyes have shown potential for toxicity; however, there is no comprehensive understanding of their effects. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to SV47 or DB14 from 6 to 120 h post fertilization (hpf) to assess the dyes’ potential adverse effects on developing embryos. The potential ability of both dyes to cross the blood–brain barrier was also assessed. At concentrations between 0.55 and 5.23 mg/L, SV47 showed a dose-dependent increase in mortality, jaw malformation, axis curvature, and edemas. At concentrations between 0.15 and 7.54 mg/L, DB14 did not have this same dose-dependence but had similar morphological outcomes at the highest doses. Nevertheless, while SV47 showed significant mortality from 4.20 mg/L, there was no significant mortality on embryos exposed to DB14. Regardless, decreased locomotor movement was observed at all concentrations of DB14, suggesting an adverse neurodevelopmental effect. Overall, our results showed that at similar concentrations, SV47 and DB14 caused different types of phenotypic effects in zebrafish embryos.