Oral Administration of Probiotic Bifidobacterium breve Improves Facilitation of Hippocampal Memory Extinction via Restoration of Aberrant Higher Induction of Neuropsin in an MPTP-Induced Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease

Thioredoxin-1 Downregulation in the SNpc Exacerbates the Cognitive Impairment Induced by MPTP

Aims: Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by dopaminergic (DAergic) neuron degeneration in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). Thioredoxin-1 (Trx-1) is a redox protein that protects neurons from various injuries. Our study revealed that Trx-1 overexpression improved the learning and memory impairments induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). However, the role of the specific transmission of signals from the SNpc to the hippocampus regulated by Trx-1 in cognition deficits associated with PD is still unknown. Results: We observed that Trx-1 downregulation in the SNpc aggravated cognitive dysfunction induced by MPTP. Importantly, we observed that the SNpc directly projects to the hippocampus. We found that the loss of DAergic neurons in the SNpc induced by MPTP resulted in a decrease in dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) expression in the hippocampus, which was promoted by Trx-1 downregulation in the SNpc. The levels of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (p-ERK1/2), phosphorylated cAMP-response element binding protein (p-CREB), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95) in the hippocampus were decreased by MPTP and further decreased by Trx-1 downregulation in the SNpc. Finally, the number of synapses in the hippocampus was decreased by MPTP in the hippocampus and further reduced by Trx-1 downregulation in the SNpc. Innovation: Trx-1 downregulation accelerated the loss of DAergic neurons in the SNpc, leading to a decrease in the number dopaminergic projections to the hippocampus, subsequently inhibiting the D1R-ERK1/2-CREB-BDNF pathway in the hippocampus, and ultimately impairing hippocampus-dependent cognition. Conclusions: These results indicate that a decrease in Trx-1 level in the SNpc plays a critical regulatory role in cognitive dysfunction in individuals with PD by decreasing the hippocampal D1R signaling pathway. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 00, 000-000.

Correlations Between Amelioration of Rotenone-Induced Parkinson's Symptoms by Amomum tsaoko Flavonoids and Gut Microbiota in Mice

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease, but the existing therapeutic drugs for PD have limitations; thus, there is an urgent need to discover new methods of prevention and treatment. Amomum tsaoko Crevost et Lemarie (AT) is a classic traditional Chinese medicine and food. Its main pharmacological effect is the regulation of the gastrointestinal tract. To date, no studies on the use of AT or its extracts to treat PD have been reported. In this study, a rotenone-induced PD mouse model was utilized to evaluate the protective effect of Amomum tsaoko flavonoids (ATFs) and to elucidate the role of the gut microbiota in this effect. The results demonstrated that ATFs not only ameliorated the motor and constipation symptoms but also reduced the loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Furthermore, ATFs reduced the expression of inflammation-related genes (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, COX-2, and MCP-1) and increased the expression of gut barrier-related genes (Muc-2, ZO-1, Occludin, Claudin3, and Claudin4) in the colon. Notably, ATFs were able to reverse rotenone-induced gut dysbiosis, including a significant decrease in the abundance of conditionally pathogenic bacteria (Desulfovibrio, Provotellaceae UCG-001, the Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group, norank_f_Erysipelotrichacea, and the Eubacterium nodatum group) and an increase in the abundance of probiotics (Bifidobacterium and Faecalibaculum). Interestingly, these genera were found to be significantly associated with PD motor symptoms and constipation indicators. This suggests that ATFs have the potential to alleviate PD symptoms through the modulation of gut microbes. These findings provide a solid foundation for further investigations into the anti-PD mechanism of ATFs and their potential in the prevention and treatment of PD.

The impact of a high-carbohydrate diet on the cognitive behavior of mice in a low-pressure, low-oxygen environment

The effectiveness of high-carbohydrate diets (HCD) on cognitive impairment is still being debated. To clarify the impact of HCD on the cognitive behavior of mice under low-pressure hypoxic conditions, we studied 24 mice in different environments while subjecting them to dietary intervention for 5 weeks, and conducting behavioral tests. Under low-pressure hypoxic conditions, HCD intervention reversed the decline in spatial learning and memory abilities in mice caused by hypoxia, ameliorated pathological brain damage, and restored the integrity of the intestinal mucosa. We also identified differences in the microbial community. Under low-pressure hypoxic conditions, the intestinal abundance of Parasutterella in mice decreased, the abundance of harmful bacteria such as Desulfovibrio increased, and apoptosis was more prevalent, possibly explaining the observed decreases in glutathione peroxidase activity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression in the brain. HCD intervention increased the intestinal abundance of Bifidobacterium in hypoxic mice, reduced the abundances of Desulfovibrio and Faecalibaculum, and played antioxidant roles by lowering malondialdehyde levels and increasing superoxide dismutase activity in the brain by metabolizing amino acids and lipids. HCD also upregulated hippocampal BDNF levels and downregulated caspase 3. Collectively, these results are important because they help explain how HCD intervention can reduce hypoxia-induced damage to brain function.

Protective Effects of Bifidobacterium Breve MCC1274 as a Novel Therapy for Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia and is characterized by memory impairment that significantly interferes with daily life. Therapeutic options for AD that substantively modify disease progression remain a critical unmet need. In this regard, the gut microbiota is crucial in maintaining human health by regulating metabolism and immune responses, and increasing evidence suggests that probiotics, particularly beneficial bacteria, can enhance memory and cognitive functions. Recent studies have highlighted the positive effects of Bifidobacterium breve MCC1274 (B. breve MCC1274) on individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and schizophrenia. Additionally, oral supplementation with B. breve MCC1274 has been shown to effectively prevent memory decline in AppNL-G-F mice. In relation to Alzheimer's pathology, oral supplementation with B. breve MCC1274 has been found to reduce amyloid-β (Aβ) accumulation and tau phosphorylation in both AppNL-G-F and wild-type (WT) mice. It also decreases microglial activation and increases levels of synaptic proteins. In this review, we examine the beneficial effects of B. breve MCC1274 on AD, exploring potential mechanisms of action and how this probiotic strain may aid in preventing or treating the disease. Furthermore, we discuss the broader implications of B. breve MCC1274 for improving overall host health and provide insights into future research directions for this promising probiotic therapy.

Bifidobacterium infantis and Bifidobacterium breve Improve Symptomatology and Neuronal Damage in Neurodegenerative Disease: A Systematic Review

Background/Objectives: This systematic review focused on collecting the most significant findings on the impact of the administration of Bifidobacterium infantis (or Bifidobacterium longum subps. infantis) and Bifidobacterium breve, alone, in conjunction, or in combination with other strains, in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). These diseases are characterized by the progressive degeneration of neurons, resulting in a broad spectrum of clinical manifestations. AD is typified by a progressive decline in cognitive abilities, while PD is marked by motor symptoms associated with the loss of dopamine (DA). Methods: Five different databases, ScienceDirect, Scopus, Wiley, PubMed, and Web of Science (WoS), were reviewed and the studies were screened for inclusion by the following criteria: (i) studies that specifically evaluated the use of Bifidobacterium infantis, Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis, or Bifidobacterium breve as a therapeutic intervention, either in human or animal models, in the context of neurodegenerative diseases; (ii) the studies were required to address one or more of the pathologies examined in this article, and the pathologies included, but were not limited to, neurodegeneration, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and oxidative stress; (iii) the full text was accessible online; and (iv) the article was written in English. Results: The data suggest that these probiotics have neuroprotective effects that may delay disease progression. Conclusions: This study provides updated insights into the use of these Bifidobacterium strains in neurodegenerative diseases like AD and PD, with the main limitation being the limited number of clinical trials available.

Gut Microbiota-Based Interventions for Parkinson's Disease: Neuroprotective Mechanisms and Current Perspective

Recent evidence links gut microbiota alterations to neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Replenishing the abnormal composition of gut microbiota through gut microbiota-based interventions "prebiotics, probiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics, and fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)" has shown beneficial effects in PD. These interventions increase gut metabolites like short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), which may protect dopaminergic neurons via the gut-brain axis. Neuroprotective effects of these interventions are mediated by several mechanisms, including the enhancement of neurotrophin and activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, GLP-1-mediated gut-brain axis signaling, Nrf2/ARE pathway, and autophagy. Other pathways, such as free fatty acid receptor activation, synaptic plasticity improvement, and blood-brain and gut barrier integrity maintenance, also contribute to neuroprotection. Furthermore, the inhibition of the TLR4/NF-кB pathway, MAPK pathway, GSK-3β signaling pathway, miR-155-5p-mediated neuroinflammation, and ferroptosis could account for their protective effects. Clinical studies involving gut microbiota-based interventions have shown therapeutic benefits in PD patients, particularly in improving gastrointestinal dysfunction and some neurological symptoms. However, the effectiveness in alleviating motor symptoms remains mild. Large-scale clinical trials are still needed to confirm these findings. This review emphasizes the neuroprotective mechanisms of gut microbiota-based interventions in PD as supported by both preclinical and clinical studies.

Probiotics as Potential Treatments for Neurodegenerative Diseases: a Review of the Evidence from in vivo to Clinical Trial

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs), characterized by the progressive deterioration of the structure and function of the nervous system, represent a significant global health challenge. Emerging research suggests that the gut microbiota plays a critical role in regulating neurodegeneration via modulation of the gut-brain axis. Probiotics, defined as live microorganisms that confer health benefits to the host, have garnered significant attention owing to their therapeutic potential in NDDs. This review examines the current research trends related to the microbiome-gut-brain axis across various NDDs, highlighting key findings and their implications. Additionally, the effects of specific probiotic strains, including Lactobacillus plantarum, Bifidobacterium breve, and Lactobacillus rhamnosus, on neurodegenerative processes were assessed, focusing on their potential therapeutic benefits. Overall, this review emphasizes the potential of probiotics as promising therapeutic agents for NDDs, underscoring the importance of further investigation into this emerging field.

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum SG5 inhibits neuroinflammation in MPTP-induced PD mice through GLP-1/PGC-1α pathway

Mounting evidence suggests that alterations in gut microbial composition play an active role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Probiotics are believed to modulate gut microbiota, potentially influencing PD development through the microbiota-gut-brain axis. However, the potential beneficial effects of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum SG5 (formerly known as Lactobacillus plantarum, abbreviated as L. plantarum) on PD and its underlying mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we employed immunofluorescence, Western blotting, ELISA, and 16S rRNA gene sequencing to investigate the neuroprotective effects of L. plantarum SG5 against neuroinflammation in an MPTP-induced PD model and to explore the underlying mechanisms. Our results demonstrated that L. plantarum SG5 ameliorated MPTP-induced motor deficits, dopaminergic neuron loss, and elevated α-synuclein protein levels. Furthermore, SG5 inhibited MPTP-triggered overactivation of microglia and astrocytes in the substantia nigra (SN), attenuated disruption of both blood-brain and intestinal barriers, and suppressed the release of inflammatory factors in the colon and SN. Notably, SG5 modulated the composition and structure of the gut microbiota in mice. The MPTP-induced decrease in colonic GLP-1 secretion was reversed by SG5 treatment, accompanied by increased expression of GLP-1R and PGC-1α in the SN. Importantly, the GLP-1R antagonist Exendin 9-39 and PGC-1α inhibitor SR18292 attenuated the protective effects of SG5 in PD mice. In conclusion, we demonstrate a neuroprotective role of L. plantarum SG5 in the MPTP-induced PD mouse model, which likely involves modulation of the gut microbiota and, significantly, the GLP-1/PGC-1α signaling pathway.

The role of gut-derived short-chain fatty acids in Parkinson's disease

The emerging function of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in Parkinson's disease (PD) has been investigated in this article. SCFAs, which are generated via the fermentation of dietary fiber by gut microbiota, have been associated with dysfunction of the gut-brain axis and, neuroinflammation. These processes are integral to the development of PD. This article examines the potential therapeutic implications of SCFAs in the management of PD, encompassing their capacity to modulate gastrointestinal permeability, neuroinflammation, and neuronal survival, by conducting an extensive literature review. As a whole, this article emphasizes the potential therapeutic utility of SCFAs as targets for the management and treatment of PD.

Oral Administration of Probiotic Bifidobacterium breve Ameliorates Tonic-Clonic Seizure in a Pentylenetetrazole-Induced Kindling Mouse Model via Integrin-Linked Kinase Signaling

Epilepsy is a chronic neurological disorder characterized by recurrent seizures that affects over 70 million people worldwide. Although many antiepileptic drugs that block seizures are available, they have little effect on preventing and curing epilepsy, and their side effects sometimes lead to serious morbidity. Therefore, prophylactic agents with anticonvulsant properties and no adverse effects need to be identified. Recent studies on probiotic administration have reported a variety of beneficial effects on the central nervous system via the microbiota-gut-brain axis. In this study, we investigated the effects of the oral administration of Bifidobacterium breve strain A1 [MCC1274] (B. breve A1) on tonic-clonic seizure in a pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced kindling mouse (KD mouse) model. We found that the oral administration of B. breve A1 every other day for 15 days significantly reduced the seizure score, which gradually increased with repetitive injections of PTZ in KD mice. The administration of B. breve A1, but not saline, to KD mice significantly increased the level of Akt Ser473 phosphorylation (p-Akt) in the hippocampus; this increase was maintained for a minimum of 24 h after PTZ administration. Treatment of B. breve A1-administered KD mice with the selective inhibitor of integrin-linked kinase (ILK) Cpd22 significantly increased the seizure score and blocked the antiepileptic effect of B. breve A1. Moreover, Cpd22 blocked the B. breve A1-induced increase in hippocampal p-Akt levels. These results suggest that the ILK-induced phosphorylation of Akt Ser473 in the hippocampus might be involved in the antiepileptic effect of B. breve A1.

Supplementation of probiotic Bifidobacterium breve Bif11 reverses neurobehavioural deficits, inflammatory changes and oxidative stress in Parkinson's disease model

Human gut microbiota are thought to affect different physiological processes in the body, including brain functions. Gut dysbiosis has been linked to the progression of Parkinson's disease (PD) and thus, restoring the healthy gut microbiota with supplementation of putative probiotic strains can confer some benefits in PD. In the current study, we explored the neuroprotective potential of Bifidobacterium breve Bif11 supplementation in 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine hydrochloride (MPTP) treated female Sprague Dawley rats. This study investigated the behavioural, molecular and biochemical parameters in the MPTP rat model. A pharmacological intervention of Bif11 at doses of 1 × 1010 CFU and 2 × 1010 CFU for 21 days was found to attenuate the cognitive and motor changes in the MPTP rat model. Furthermore, it also increased the tyrosine hydroxylase levels, reduced pro-inflammatory markers and decreased oxidative and nitrosative stress in the mid brain of MPTP-lesioned rats. Bif11 supplementation even restored the levels of short-chain fatty acids and decreased intestinal epithelial permeability in MPTP-induced PD model rats. In summary, these findings demonstrate that B. breve Bif11 has the potential to ameliorate symptoms of PD. However, this therapy needs to be further investigated with in-depth mechanistic insights in the future for the treatment of PD.

65 years of research on dopamine's role in classical fear conditioning and extinction: A systematic review

Dopamine, a catecholamine neurotransmitter, has historically been associated with the encoding of reward, whereas its role in aversion has received less attention. Here, we systematically gathered the vast evidence of the role of dopamine in the simplest forms of aversive learning: classical fear conditioning and extinction. In the past, crude methods were used to augment or inhibit dopamine to study its relationship with fear conditioning and extinction. More advanced techniques such as conditional genetic, chemogenic and optogenetic approaches now provide causal evidence for dopamine's role in these learning processes. Dopamine neurons encode conditioned stimuli during fear conditioning and extinction and convey the signal via activation of D1-4 receptor sites particularly in the amygdala, prefrontal cortex and striatum. The coordinated activation of dopamine receptors allows for the continuous formation, consolidation, retrieval and updating of fear and extinction memory in a dynamic and reciprocal manner. Based on the reviewed literature, we conclude that dopamine is crucial for the encoding of classical fear conditioning and extinction and contributes in a way that is comparable to its role in encoding reward.

Probiotics as modulators of gut-brain axis for cognitive development

Various microbial communities reside in the gastrointestinal tract of humans and play an important role in immunity, digestion, drug metabolism, intestinal integrity, and protection from pathogens. Recent studies have revealed that the gut microbiota (GM) is involved in communication with the brain, through a bidirectional communication network known as the gut-brain axis. This communication involves humoral, immunological, endocrine, and neural pathways. Gut dysbiosis negatively impacts these communication pathways, leading to neurological complications and cognitive deficits. Both pre-clinical and clinical studies have demonstrated that probiotics can restore healthy GM, reduce intestinal pH, and reduce inflammation and pathogenic microbes in the gut. Additionally, probiotics improve cell-to-cell signaling and increase blood-brain-derived neurotrophic factors. Probiotics emerge as a potential approach for preventing and managing neurological complications and cognitive deficits. Despite these promising findings, the safety concerns and possible risks of probiotic usage must be closely monitored and addressed. This review article provides a brief overview of the role and significance of probiotics in cognitive health.

Probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum KU210152 and its fermented soy milk attenuates oxidative stress in neuroblastoma cells

We evaluated the probiotic properties and neuroprotective effects of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum KU210152 and its application in soy milk. L. plantarum KU210152 exhibited high tolerance to artificial gastrointestinal conditions, high adhesion to intestinal cells (HT-29), and safe enzyme production. Conditioned medium acquired from HT-29 cells treated with heat-killed lactic acid bacteria (LAB-CM) was used to evaluate the neuroprotective effects. The CM exhibited neuroprotective effects via cell viability assay, morphological observations, and suppression of ROS production. Heat-killed L. plantarum KU210152 increased brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression in HT-29 cells. In SH-SY5Y cells, pretreatment with L. plantarum KU210152 CM decreased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and upregulated BDNF and TH expression. The CM inhibited caspase-9 and caspase-3 activities. The neuroprotective effects of L. plantarum KU210152 were also confirmed in fermented soy milk. Therefore, both L. plantarum KU210152 and the fermented soy milk can be used as functional ingredients with neuroprotective effects against oxidative stress.

Effect of Human Infant Gut Microbiota on Mouse Behavior, Dendritic Complexity, and Myelination

The mammalian gut microbiome influences numerous developmental processes. In human infants it has been linked with cognition, social skills, hormonal responses to stress, and brain connectivity. Yet, these associations are not necessarily causal. The present study tested whether two microbial stool communities, common in human infants, affected behavior, myelination, dendritic morphology, and spine density when used to colonize mouse models. Humanized animals were more like specific-pathogen free mice than germ-free mice for most phenotypes, although in males, both humanized groups were less social. Both humanized groups had thinner myelin sheaths in the hippocampus, than did germ-free animals. Humanized animals were similar to each other except for dendritic morphology and spine density where one group had greater dendritic length in the prefrontal cortex, greater dendritic volume in the nucleus accumbens, and greater spine density in both regions, compared to the other. Results add to a body of literature suggesting the gut microbiome impacts brain development.

Teaser

Fecal transplants from human infants with highly abundant Bifidobacterium , an important inhabitant of the intestinal tract of breastfed newborns, may promote brain connectivity in mice.

Cognitive Impairment in Parkinson's Disease: An Updated Overview Focusing on Emerging Pharmaceutical Treatment Approaches

Cognitive impairment in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the commonest and most disabling non-motor manifestations during the course of the disease. The clinical spectrum of PD-related cognitive impairment includes subjective cognitive decline (SCD), mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and PD dementia (PDD). As the disease progresses, cognitive decline creates a significant burden for the family members and/or caregivers of patients with PD, and has a great impact on quality of life. Current pharmacological treatments have demonstrated partial efficacy and failed to halt disease progression, and novel, effective, and safe therapeutic strategies are required. Accumulating preclinical and clinical evidence shows that several agents may provide beneficial effects on patients with PD and cognitive impairment, including ceftriaxone, ambroxol, intranasal insulin, nilotinib, atomoxetine, mevidalen, blarcamesine, prasinezumab, SYN120, ENT-01, NYX-458, GRF6021, fosgonimeton, INT-777, Neuropeptide S, silibinin, osmotin, cordycepin, huperzine A, fibroblast growth factor 21, Poloxamer 188, ginsenoside Rb1, thioredoxin-1, tangeretin, istradefylline and Eugenia uniflora. Potential underlying mechanisms include the inhibition of a-synuclein aggregation, the improvement of mitochondrial function, the regulation of synaptic plasticity, an impact on the gut-brain axis, the modulation of neuroinflammation and the upregulation of neurotrophic factors, as well as cholinergic, dopaminergic, serotoninergic and norepinephrine neurotransmission. In this updated overview, we aim to cover the clinical aspects of the spectrum of PD-related cognitive impairment and discuss recent evidence on emerging treatment approaches that are under investigation at a preclinical and clinical level. Finally, we aim to provide additional insights and propose new ideas for investigation that may be feasible and effective for the spectrum of PD-related cognitive impairment.

A Low-Protein, High-Carbohydrate Diet Exerts a Neuroprotective Effect on Mice with 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-Induced Parkinson's Disease by Regulating the Microbiota-Metabolite-Brain Axis and Fibroblast Growth Factor 21

Parkinson's disease (PD) is closely linked to lifestyle factors, particularly dietary patterns, which have attracted interest as potential disease-modifying factors. Eating a low-protein, high-carbohydrate (LPHC) diet is a promising dietary intervention against brain aging; however, its protective effect on PD remains elusive. Here, we found that an LPHC diet ameliorated 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrathydropyridine (MPTP)-induced motor deficits, decreased dopaminergic neuronal death, and increased the levels of striatal dopamine, serotonin, and their metabolites in PD mice. Levels of fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF-21), a member of the fibroblast growth factor family, were elevated in PD mice following LPHC treatment. Furthermore, the administration of FGF-21 exerted a protective effect on MPTP-induced PC12 cells, similar to the effect of an LPHC diet in MPTP-induced mice. Sequencing of the 16S rDNA from fecal microbiota revealed that an LPHC diet normalized the gut bacterial composition imbalance in PD mice, as evidenced by the increased abundance of the genera Bifidobacterium, Ileibacterium, Turicibacter, and Blautia and decreased abundance of Bilophila, Alistipes, and Bacteroides. PICRUSt-predicted fecal microbiome function revealed that an LPHC diet suppressed lipopolysaccharide biosynthesis and the citrate cycle (TCA cycle), biosynthesis of ubiquinone and other terpenoid-quinones, and oxidative phosphorylation pathways caused by MPTP, and enhanced the biosynthesis of amino acids, carbohydrate metabolism, and biosynthesis of other secondary metabolites. A nonmetabolomic analysis of the serum and feces showed that an LPHC diet significantly increased the levels of aromatic amino acids (AAAs), including tryptophan, tyrosine, and phenylalanine. In addition, an LPHC diet elevated the serum concentrations of bile acids (BAs), particularly tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) and taurine. Collectively, our current findings point to the potential mechanism of administering an LPHC diet in attenuating movement impairments in MPTP-induced PD mice, with AAAs, microbial metabolites (TUDCA and taurine), and FGF-21 as key mediators along the gut-microbiota-brain axis.

Probiotics for Neurodegenerative Diseases: A Systemic Review

Neurodegenerative disorders (ND) are a group of conditions that affect the neurons in the brain and spinal cord, leading to their degeneration and eventually causing the loss of function in the affected areas. These disorders can be caused by a range of factors, including genetics, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices. Major pathological signs of these diseases are protein misfolding, proteosomal dysfunction, aggregation, inadequate degradation, oxidative stress, free radical formation, mitochondrial dysfunctions, impaired bioenergetics, DNA damage, fragmentation of Golgi apparatus neurons, disruption of axonal transport, dysfunction of neurotrophins (NTFs), neuroinflammatory or neuroimmune processes, and neurohumoral symptoms. According to recent studies, defects or imbalances in gut microbiota can directly lead to neurological disorders through the gut-brain axis. Probiotics in ND are recommended to prevent cognitive dysfunction, which is a major symptom of these diseases. Many in vivo and clinical trials have revealed that probiotics (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum, and Lactobacillus casei, etc.) are effective candidates against the progression of ND. It has been proven that the inflammatory process and oxidative stress can be modulated by modifying the gut microbiota with the help of probiotics. As a result, this study provides an overview of the available data, bacterial variety, gut-brain axis defects, and probiotics' mode of action in averting ND. A literature search on particular sites, including PubMed, Nature, and Springer Link, has identified articles that might be pertinent to this subject. The search contains the following few groups of terms: (1) Neurodegenerative disorders and Probiotics OR (2) Probiotics and Neurodegenerative disorders. The outcomes of this study aid in elucidating the relationship between the effects of probiotics on different neurodegenerative disorders. This systematic review will assist in discovering new treatments in the future, as probiotics are generally safe and cause mild side effects in some cases in the human body.

Neuroprotective Effects of Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 in a Mouse Model of Parkinson’s Disease: The Role of Gut Microbiota and MicroRNAs

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by motor deficits and marked neuroinflammation in various brain regions. The pathophysiology of PD is complex and mounting evidence has suggested an association with the dysregulation of microRNAs (miRNAs) and gut dysbiosis. Using a rotenone-induced PD mouse model, we observed that administration of Lactobacillus plantarum PS128 (PS128) significantly improved motor deficits in PD-like mice, accompanied by an increased level of dopamine, reduced dopaminergic neuron loss, reduced microglial activation, reduced levels of inflammatory factors, and enhanced expression of neurotrophic factor in the brain. Notably, the inflammation-related expression of miR-155-5p was significantly upregulated in the proximal colon, midbrain, and striatum of PD-like mice. PS128 reduced the level of miR-155-5p, whereas it increased the expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1), a direct target of miR-155-5p and a critical inhibitor of the inflammatory response in the brain. Alteration of the fecal microbiota in PD-like mice was partially restored by PS128 administration. Among them, Bifidobacterium, Ruminiclostridium_6, Bacteroides, and Alistipes were statistically correlated with the improvement of rotenone-induced motor deficits and the expression of miR-155-5p and SOCS1. Our findings suggested that PS128 ameliorates motor deficits and exerts neuroprotective effects by regulating the gut microbiota and miR-155-5p/SOCS1 pathway in rotenone-induced PD-like mice.

Lactobacillus plantarum CCFM405 against Rotenone-Induced Parkinson’s Disease Mice via Regulating Gut Microbiota and Branched-Chain Amino Acids Biosynthesis

Recent studies have demonstrated that disturbances in the gut microbiota and microbiota -derived metabolites contribute to the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD), suggesting that probiotic treatments that restore them may delay disease progression. This study aimed to examine the attenuating efficacy of L. plantarum CCFM405 and the potential mechanisms in mice with rotenone-induced PD. Our results indicate that L. plantarum CCFM405 ameliorated rotenone-induced motor deficits and constipation, decreased dopaminergic neuronal death, reduced intestinal inflammation and neuroinflammation, and raised dopamine levels, 5-HT, and associated metabolites in the striatal region of the brain in mice with PD. Sequencing of 16S rRNA from fecal microbiota revealed that L. plantarum CCFM405 normalized the gut bacterial composition in mice with PD, as evidenced by the increased relative abundance of the following genus, Bifidobacterium, Turicibacter, and Faecalibaculum, and decreased relative abundance of Alistipes, Bilophila, Akkermansia, and Escherichia-Shigella. The PICRUSt-predicted gut microbiota function revealed that L. plantarum CCFM405 enhanced the biosynthesis of amino acid pathways, particularly valine, leucine, and isoleucine (branched-chain amino acids, BCAAs). A non-metabolomic analysis of the serum and feces showed that L. plantarum CCFM405 markedly increased the levels of BCAAs. Pathway enrichment analysis based on the KEGG database further suggested that L. plantarum CCFM405 supplementation can promote BCAAs biosynthesis. Collectively, L. plantarum CCFM405 can help to prevent rotenone-induced PD by modulating the gut microbiota–metabolite axis. BCAAs may play a dominant role in L. plantarum CCFM405-associated neuroprotection in PD mice. This probiotic could be utilized as a potential food supplement in the management of PD.

Neuroprotective Effects of Bifidobacterium breve CCFM1067 in MPTP-Induced Mouse Models of Parkinson's Disease

There is mounting evidence that the microbiota-gut-brain axis (MGBA) is critical in the pathogenesis and progression of Parkinson's disease (PD), suggesting that probiotic therapy restoring gut microecology may slow down disease progression. In this study, we examined the disease-alleviating effects of Bifidobacterium breve CCFM1067, orally administered for 5 weeks in a PD mouse model. Our study shows that supplementation with the probiotic B. breve CCFM1067 protected dopaminergic neurons and suppressed glial cell hyperactivation and neuroinflammation in PD mice. In addition, the antioxidant capacity of the central nervous system was enhanced and oxidative stress was alleviated. Moreover, B. breve CCFM1067 protected the blood-brain and intestinal barriers from damage in the MPTP-induced mouse model. The results of fecal microbiota analysis showed that B. breve CCFM1067 intervention could act on the MPTP-induced microecological imbalance in the intestinal microbiota, suppressing the number of pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia-Shigella) while increasing the number of beneficial bacteria (Bifidobacterium and Akkermansia) in PD mice. In addition, the increase in short chain fatty acids (acetic and butyric acids) may explain the anti-inflammatory action of B. breve CCFM1067 in the gut or brain of the MPTP-induced PD mouse model. In conclusion, we demonstrated that the probiotic B. breve CCFM1067, which can prevent or treat PD by modulating the gut-brain axis, can be utilized as a possible new oral supplement for PD therapy.

Probiotics and the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease: An Update

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurological disorder characterized by motor and non-motor features. Although some progress has been made in conventional PD treatments, these breakthroughs have yet to show high efficacy in treating this neurodegenerative disease. Probiotics are live microorganisms that confer health benefits on the host when administered in adequate amounts. Probiotics have putative anticancer, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective effects. Multiple lines of evidence show that probiotics control and improve several motor and non-motor symptoms in patients and experimental animal models of PD. Probiotic supplementation mediates these pharmacological effects by targeting a variety of cellular and molecular processes, i.e., oxidative stress, inflammatory and anti-inflammatory pathways, as well as apoptosis. Herein, we summarize the effects of probiotics on motor and non-motor symptoms as well as various cellular and molecular pathways in PD.

Recent developments in the probiotics as live biotherapeutic products (LBPs) as modulators of gut brain axis related neurological conditions

Probiotics have been defined as “living microorganisms that create health benefits in the host when taken in sufficient amounts. Recent developments in the understanding of the relationship between the microbiom and its host have shown evidence about the promising potential of probiotics to improve certain health problems. However, today, there are some confusions about traditional and new generation foods containing probiotics, naming and classifications of them in scientific studies and also their marketing. To clarify this confusion, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) declared that it has made a new category definition called "live biotherapeutic products" (LBPs). Accordingly, the FDA has designated LBPs as “a biological product that: i)contains live organisms, such as bacteria; ii)is applicable to the prevention, treatment, or cure of a disease/condition of human beings; and iii) is not a vaccine”. The accumulated literature focused on LBPs to determine effective strains in health and disease, and often focused on obesity, diabetes, and certain diseases like inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).However, microbiome also play an important role in the pathogenesis of diseases that age day by day in the modern world via gut-brain axis. Herein, we discuss the novel roles of LBPs in some gut-brain axis related conditions in the light of recent studies. This article may be of interest to a broad readership including those interested in probiotics as LBPs, their health effects and safety, also gut-brain axis.

Gut Microbiota: A Novel Therapeutic Target for Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disease characterized by motor dysfunction. Growing evidence has demonstrated that gut dysbiosis is involved in the occurrence, development and progression of PD. Numerous clinical trials have identified the characteristics of the changed gut microbiota profiles, and preclinical studies in PD animal models have indicated that gut dysbiosis can influence the progression and onset of PD via increasing intestinal permeability, aggravating neuroinflammation, aggregating abnormal levels of α-synuclein fibrils, increasing oxidative stress, and decreasing neurotransmitter production. The gut microbiota can be considered promising diagnostic and therapeutic targets for PD, which can be regulated by probiotics, psychobiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, postbiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation, diet modifications, and Chinese medicine. This review summarizes the recent studies in PD-associated gut microbiota profiles and functions, the potential roles, and mechanisms of gut microbiota in PD, and gut microbiota-targeted interventions for PD. Deciphering the underlying roles and mechanisms of the PD-associated gut microbiota will help interpret the pathogenesis of PD from new perspectives and elucidate novel therapeutic strategies for PD.

Gut microbiota and inflammation in Parkinson’s disease: Pathogenetic and therapeutic insights

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by dopaminergic neuronal loss and α-synuclein (α-syn) aggregation. With the acceleration of population aging process, the incidence of PD is expected to increase, putting a heavy burden on the whole society. Recent studies have found the alterations of gut microbiota (GM) in PD patients and the clinical relevance of these changes, indicating the underlying relationship between GM and PD. Additionally, elevated inflammatory responses originating from the gut play a crucial role in the initiation and progression of PD, which is closely associated with GM. In this review, we will summarize recent studies on the correlation between GM and PD, and discuss the possible pathogenesis of PD mediated by GM and subsequent inflammatory cascades. We will also focus on the promising GM-based therapeutic strategies of PD, including antibiotics, probiotics and/or prebiotics, fecal microbiota transplantation, and dietary interventions, aiming to provide some new therapeutic insights for PD.

A Perspective on the Potential of Opsins as an Integral Mechanism of Photobiomodulation: It's Not Just the Eyes

Objective: To investigate the potential relationship between opsins and photobiomodulation. Background: Opsins and other photoreceptors occur in all phyla and are important in light-activated signaling and organism homeostasis. In addition to the visual opsin systems of the retina (OPN1 and OPN2), there are several non-visual opsins found throughout the body tissues, including encephalopsin/panopsin (OPN3), melanopsin (OPN4), and neuropsin (OPN5), as well as other structures that have light-sensitive properties, such as enzymes, ion channels, particularly those located in cell membranes, lysosomes, and neuronal structures such as the nodes of Ranvier. The influence of these structures on exposure to light, including self-generated light within the body (autofluorescence), on circadian oscillators, and circadian and ultradian rhythms have become increasingly reported. The visual and non-visual phototransduction cascade originating from opsins and other structures has potential significant mechanistic effects on tissues and health. Methods: A PubMed and Google Scholar search was made using the search terms "photobiomodulation", "light", "neuron", "opsins", "neuropsin", "melanopsin", "encephalopsin", "rhodopsin", and "chromophore". Results: This review was examined the influence of neuropsin (also known as kallikrein 8), encephalopsin, and melanopsin specifically on ion channel function, and more broadly on the central and peripheral nervous systems. The relationship between opsins 3, 4, and 5 and photobiomodulation mechanisms was evaluated, along with a proposed role of photobiomodulation through opsins and light-sensitive organelles as potential alleviators of symptoms and accelerators of beneficial regenerative processes. The potential clinical implications of this in musculoskeletal conditions, wounds, and in the symptomatic management of neurodegenerative disease was also examined. Conclusions: Systematic research into the pleotropic therapeutic role of photobiomodulation, mediated through its action on opsins and other light-sensitive organelles may assist in the future execution of safe, low-risk precision medicine for a variety of chronic and complex disease conditions, and for health maintenance in aging.

The Gut-Brain Axis and Its Relation to Parkinson's Disease: A Review

Parkinson's disease is a chronic neurodegenerative disease characterized by the accumulation of misfolded alpha-synuclein protein (Lewy bodies) in dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra and other related circuitry, which contribute to the development of both motor (bradykinesia, tremors, stiffness, abnormal gait) and non-motor symptoms (gastrointestinal issues, urinogenital complications, olfaction dysfunction, cognitive impairment). Despite tremendous progress in the field, the exact pathways and mechanisms responsible for the initiation and progression of this disease remain unclear. However, recent research suggests a potential relationship between the commensal gut bacteria and the brain capable of influencing neurodevelopment, brain function and health. This bidirectional communication is often referred to as the microbiome-gut-brain axis. Accumulating evidence suggests that the onset of non-motor symptoms, such as gastrointestinal manifestations, often precede the onset of motor symptoms and disease diagnosis, lending support to the potential role that the microbiome-gut-brain axis might play in the underlying pathological mechanisms of Parkinson's disease. This review will provide an overview of and critically discuss the current knowledge of the relationship between the gut microbiota and Parkinson's disease. We will discuss the role of α-synuclein in non-motor disease pathology, proposed pathways constituting the connection between the gut microbiome and the brain, existing evidence related to pre- and probiotic interventions. Finally, we will highlight the potential opportunity for the development of novel preventative measures and therapeutic options that could target the microbiome-gut-brain axis in the context of Parkinson's disease.

Impact of Pharmacological and Non-Pharmacological Modulators on Dendritic Spines Structure and Functions in Brain

Dendritic spines are small, thin, hair-like protrusions found on the dendritic processes of neurons. They serve as independent compartments providing large amplitudes of Ca2+ signals to achieve synaptic plasticity, provide sites for newer synapses, facilitate learning and memory. One of the common and severe complication of neurodegenerative disease is cognitive impairment, which is said to be closely associated with spine pathologies viz., decreased in spine density, spine length, spine volume, spine size etc. Many treatments targeting neurological diseases have shown to improve the spine structure and distribution. However, concise data on the various modulators of dendritic spines are imperative and a need of the hour. Hence, in this review we made an attempt to consolidate the effects of various pharmacological (cholinergic, glutamatergic, GABAergic, serotonergic, adrenergic, and dopaminergic agents) and non-pharmacological modulators (dietary interventions, enriched environment, yoga and meditation) on dendritic spines structure and functions. These data suggest that both the pharmacological and non-pharmacological modulators produced significant improvement in dendritic spine structure and functions and in turn reversing the pathologies underlying neurodegeneration. Intriguingly, the non-pharmacological approaches have shown to improve intellectual performances both in preclinical and clinical platforms, but still more technology-based evidence needs to be studied. Thus, we conclude that a combination of pharmacological and non-pharmacological intervention may restore cognitive performance synergistically via improving dendritic spine number and functions in various neurological disorders.

Short-chain fatty acids-producing probiotics: A novel source of psychobiotics

Psychobiotics-live microorganisms with potential mental health benefits, which can modulate the microbiota-gut-brain-axis via immune, humoral, neural, and metabolic pathways-are emerging as novel therapeutic options for the effective treatment of psychiatric disorders Recently, microbiome studies have identified numerous putative psychobiotic strains, of which short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) producing bacteria have attracted special attention from neurobiologists. Recent studies have highlighted that SCFAs-producing bacteria such as Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium and Clostridium have a very specific function in various psychiatric disorders, suggesting that these bacteria can be potential novel psychobiotics. SCFAs, potential mediators of microbiota-gut-brain axis, might modulate function of neurological processes. While the specific roles and mechanisms of SCFAs-producing bacteria of microbiota-targeted interventions on neuropsychiatric disease are largely unknown. This Review summarizes existing knowledge on the neuroprotective effects of the SCFAs-producing bacteria in neurological disorders via modulating microbiota-gut-brain axis and illustrate their possible mechanisms by which SCFAs-producing bacteria may act on these disorders, which will shed light on the SCFAs-producing bacteria as a promising novel source of psychobiotics.