Targeting Cancer Cells Overexpressing Folate Receptors with New Terpolymer-Based Nanocapsules: Toward a Novel Targeted DNA Delivery System for Cancer Therapy

Silk fibroin: An innovative protein macromolecule-based hydrogel/ scaffold revolutionizing breast cancer treatment and diagnosis - Mechanisms, advancements, and targeting capabilities

Breast cancer (BC) is recognized as the most typical cancer diagnosed in women globally, posing significant public health challenges. Several protein-based biological macromolecules have been investigated for drug delivery in BC treatment due to biological and tunable mechanical properties. Silk fibroin (SF)-based hydrogel/scaffold is gaining attraction in BC therapy. The functionalization of SF with folic acid or antibodies enables targeted delivery to BC cells that overexpress folate receptors. In this context, this perspective article explored the potential biological activity, targeting capacity, functionalization, and drug carrier abilities of SF-based hydrogel for BC therapy. In addition, the article exclusively delves into the potential molecular pathways of SF-based hydrogel/ scaffolds for targeted therapy in BC. The article also summarizes the perspectives on the diagnosis abilities of SF-based hydrogel/ scaffolds in BC treatment, making it the first instance of such perspective literature. This insightful literature presents practical guidance for researchers, clinicians, and scientists eager to investigate the innovative biological applications and targeting potential of SF-based hydrogels and scaffolds in advancing breast cancer treatments.

Advancing Nanomedicine Through Electron Microscopy: Insights Into Nanoparticle Cellular Interactions and Biomedical Applications

Nanomedicine has revolutionized cancer treatment by the development of nanoparticles (NPs) that offer targeted therapeutic delivery and reduced side effects. NPs research in nanomedicine significantly focuses on understanding their cellular interactions and intracellular mechanisms. A precise understanding of nanoparticle interactions at the subcellular level is crucial for their effective application in cancer therapy. Electron microscopy has proven essential, offering high-resolution insights into nanoparticle behavior within biological systems. This article reviews the role of electron microscopy in elucidating the cellular uptake and intracellular interactions of NPs. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) provides imaging capabilities, such as cryo three-dimensional tomography, which offer in-depth insights into nanoparticle localization, endocytosis pathways, and subcellular interactions, while high resolution-TEM is primarily used for studying the atomic structure of isolated NPs rather than nanoparticles within cells or tissues. On the other hand, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is ideal for examining larger surface areas and provides a broader perspective on the morphology and topography of the samples. The review highlights the advantages of electron microscopy in visualizing nanoparticle interactions with cellular structures and tracking their mechanisms of action. It also addresses the challenges associated with electron microscopy characterization, such as tedious sample preparation, static imaging limitations, and a restricted field of view. By examining various nanoparticle uptake pathways, and cellular destination of NPs with examples, the article emphasizes the importance of these pathways to optimize nanoparticle design and enhance therapeutic efficacy. This review underscores the need for continued advancement in electron microscopy techniques to improve the effectiveness of nanomedicine and address existing challenges. In summary, electron microscopy is a key tool for advancing our understanding of nanoparticle behavior in biological contexts, aiding in the design and optimization of nanomedicines by providing insights into nanoparticle cellular dynamics, uptake mechanisms, and therapeutic applications.

Folic acid-targeted β-lactoglobulin nanocarriers for enhanced delivery of 5-fluorouracil and sodium butyrate in colorectal cancer treatment

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a significant public health concern, emphasizing the need for innovative therapeutic strategies to improve patient outcomes. This study aimed to develop a highly efficient nanocarrier for targeted drug delivery, enhancing drug efficacy while minimizing concentrations and limiting adverse effects. We synthesized protein-based β-lactoglobulin (βlg) nanoparticles (NPs), loaded with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and sodium butyrate (NaB), and further functionalized with folic acid (FA) for specific targeting of folate receptor-positive CRC cells. The βlg-5-FU-NaB-FA nanoplatforms exhibited a well-defined size of 208 nm with a narrow size distribution (PDI ≈ 0.5). Zeta potential measurements showed a value of -11.4 mV, indicating stability and suitability for drug delivery. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) confirmed the nanocarrier's spherical morphology and efficient distribution. Drug release profiles demonstrated that the NPs released more drugs at neutral to alkaline pH levels, attributed to pectin's ionization properties. The efficacy of the prepared βlg-5-FU-NaB-FA nanoplatforms was investigated on HCT116 and Caco2 CRC cells, along with the normal cell line CRL-1831. The βlg-5-FU-NaB-FA nanoplatforms exhibited remarkable cytotoxicity against both HCT116 and Caco2 CRC cells compared to free drugs, highlighting the efficacy of targeted delivery in folate receptor-positive cells. These NPs induce cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest more effectively than free drugs, demonstrating their potential for targeted cancer therapy. Furthermore, a decrease in the expression of crucial genes involved in the Wnt signaling pathway was observed, which offers a valuable understanding of their underlying mechanism. Collectively, our results suggest that the FA-targeted βlg nanocarriers represent a promising platform for the efficient and targeted delivery of 5-FU and NaB in folate receptor-positive CRC. This novel nanocarrier holds the potential to enhance therapeutic outcomes while minimizing side effects, providing a new avenue for the treatment of CRC.

Role of Cell Adhesion in Cancer Metastasis Formation: A Review

Intercellular adhesion is accompanied by several physical quantities and actions. In this review, we tried to collect information about the influence of surface energy and its impact on cell-cell adhesion. It still undergoes development for cancer treatment. Data on receptor-ligand interactions that occur on circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are described, and adhesion receptors as therapeutic targets are collected. Additionally, the impact of surface roughness on the interactions between CTC cells and the surface was monitored. The effects of different cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) on cell adhesion, growth, and proliferation were investigated. This review offers general principles of cell adhesion, through the blockade of adhesion with blocking drugs and inhibitors like computational models that describe the process of adhesion. Some theoretical models based on the minimum of the total free energy of interaction between CAMs and selected organic molecules have been presented. The final aim was to find information on how modulation of the surface of CTCs (by medicals or physically) inhibits cancer metastases formation.

Future Perspectives on the Automation and Biocompatibility of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Healthcare Applications

Molecular recognition is of crucial importance in several healthcare applications, such as sensing, drug delivery, and therapeutics. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) present an interesting alternative to biological receptors (e.g., antibodies, enzymes) for this purpose since synthetic receptors overcome the limited robustness, flexibility, high-cost, and potential for inhibition that comes with natural recognition elements. However, off the shelf MIP products remain limited, which is likely due to the lack of a scalable production approach that can manufacture these materials in high yields and narrow and defined size distributions to have full control over their properties. In this Perspective, we will confer how breakthroughs in the automation of MIP design, manufacturing, and evaluation of performance will accelerate the (commercial) implementation of MIPs in healthcare technology. In addition, we will discuss how prediction of the in vivo behavior of MIPs with animal-free technologies (e.g., 3D tissue models) will be critical to assess their clinical potential.

Folate receptor-targeted thiol-maleimide clicked chitosan/carboxymethyl cellulose nanoparticles for cisplatin delivery in oral carcinoma

This study aimed to develop cisplatin (CDDP)-loaded folic acid (FA)-decorated nanoparticles (NPs) as targeted drug carrier towards overexpressed folate receptors on the oral carcinoma cell line (KB cells). The FA-conjugated thiolated succinyl chitosan (FA-SH-SCS) and maleimide-grafted-carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC-MAL) were synthesized and acquired in the preparation of NPs via thiol-maleimide click reaction. The physicochemical characteristics, drug loading, and drug release of the FA-decorated NPs (FA-NPs) were examined. Also, the in vitro biocompatibility, cellular uptake, and cell death mechanism were investigated. Relatively spherical NPs with negative charge were obtained with a size of approximately 200 nm. The formation of FA-NPs through click reaction was confirmed by the pH change and Ellman's assay. The release of CDDP from the FA-NPs was influenced by the acidic tumor environment. The FA-NPs were non-toxic to the normal cells. Furthermore, FA-NPs improved the cellular uptake of CDDP in oral carcinoma cells through specific recognition of folate receptors by FA-NPs. The delivery of CDDP by FA-NPs to the KB cell induced the apoptotic cell death pathway. Therefore, FA-NPs presented the potential to be effective nanocarriers for CDDP delivery in the treatment of oral cancer via active targeting approach.

Curcumin-Based Nanoparticles: Advancements and Challenges in Tumor Therapy

Curcumin, a bioactive compound derived from the rhizome of Curcuma longa L., has garnered significant attention for its potent anticancer properties. Despite its promising therapeutic potential, its poor bioavailability, rapid metabolism, and low water solubility hinder curcumin's clinical application. Nanotechnology offers a viable solution to these challenges by enabling the development of curcumin-based nanoparticles (CNPs) that enhance its bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the recent advancements in the design and synthesis of CNPs for cancer therapy. We discuss various NP formulations, including polymeric, lipid-based, and inorganic nanoparticles, highlighting their role in improving curcumin's pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles. The mechanisms by which CNPs exert anticancer effects, such as inducing apoptosis, inhibiting cell proliferation, and modulating signaling pathways, are explored in details. Furthermore, we examine the preclinical and clinical studies that have demonstrated the efficacy of CNPs in treating different types of tumors, including breast, colorectal, and pancreatic cancers. Finally, the review addresses the current challenges and future perspectives in the clinical translation of CNPs, emphasizing the need for further research to optimize their design for targeted delivery and to enhance their therapeutic outcomes. By synthesizing the latest research, this review underscores the potential of CNPs as a promising avenue for advancing cancer therapy.

Exploring the therapeutic applications of nano-therapy of encapsulated cisplatin and anthocyanin-loaded multiwalled carbon nanotubes coated with chitosan-conjugated folic acid in targeting breast and liver cancers

This study aimed to assess the targeted nano-therapy of encapsulated cisplatin (Cis) and anthocyanin (Ant)-loaded multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CNT) coated with chitosan conjugated folic acid on breast MCF7 and liver HepG2 cancer cells. Zeta potential, UV-spectroscopy, FTIR, TEM, and SEM were used to evaluate CNT, its modified form (CNT Mod), CNT-loaded Cis NPs, CNT-loaded Ant NPs, and CNT- Cis + Ant NPs. All treatments induced apoptosis-dependent cytotoxicity in both cell lines as revealed functionally by the MTT assay, morphologically (DNA degradation) by acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) double staining, and molecularly (Bax upregulation and Bcl2 downregulation) by real-time PCR, with best effect for the combined treatment (CNT- Cis + Ant NPs). This combined treatment also significantly reduced inflammation (low TNFα), migration (low MMP9 and high TIMP1), and angiogenesis (low VEGF), while significantly increasing antioxidant status (high Nrf2 and OH-1) in MCF7 and HepG2 cells compared to other treatments. Interestingly, cells treated with CNT Mod exhibited higher cytotoxic, apoptotic, anti-migratory, and anti-angiogenic potentials relative to CNT-treated cells. In conclusion, targeted nano-therapy of encapsulated cisplatin and anthocyanin-loaded carbon nanotubes coated with chitosan conjugated folic acid can efficiently combat breast and liver cancers by sustained release, in addition to its apoptotic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-metastatic, and anti-angiogenic effects.

PEGylated Pemetrexed and PolyNIPAM Decorated Gold Nanoparticles: A Biocompatible and Highly Stable CT Contrast Agent for Cancer Imaging

This study describes a multifunctional nanoparticle platform for targeted CT imaging and therapy of cancers. Pemetrexed (conjugated with polyethylene glycol, MW 2000 Da) and polyNIPAM (PEGylated) were designed for targeted delivery to folate receptors and thermally ablated tumors, respectively. These moieties were coated on gold nanoparticles (7 and 30 nm), and the prepared compounds were characterized using 1H NMR, FT-IR, CHNS, DLS, TEM, TGA, and UV-vis. The resulting agents exhibited 2-4 times higher X-ray attenuation compared to Visipaque and demonstrated specific accumulation in tumor tissue (4T1 xenograft model) 90 min after injection in mice. The nanoparticles displayed anticancer activity against 4T1 and MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells (IC50: 182.87 and 206.18 μg/mL) and good biocompatibility. Importantly, the platform showed excellent stability over a year and at pH 2-12 and temperature range of -78 to 40 °C, and a water-dichloromethane extraction method was optimized for efficient purification, facilitating large-scale production.

Targeted cancer treatment using folate-conjugated sponge-like ZIF-8 nanoparticles: a review

ZIF-8 (zeolitic imidazolate framework-8) is a potential drug delivery system because of its unique properties, which include a large surface area, a large pore capacity, a large loading capacity, and outstanding stability under physiological conditions. ZIF-8 nanoparticles may be readily functionalized with targeting ligands for the identification and absorption of particular cancer cells, enhancing the efficacy of chemotherapeutic medicines and reducing adverse effects. ZIF-8 is also pH-responsive, allowing medication release in the acidic milieu of cancer cells. Because of its tunable structure, it can be easily functionalized to design cancer-specific targeted medicines. The delivery of ZIF-8 to cancer cells can be facilitated by folic acid-conjugation. Hence, it can bind to overexpressed folate receptors on the surface of cancer cells, which holds the promise of reducing unwanted deliveries. As a result of its importance in cancer treatment, the folate-conjugated ZIF-8 was the major focus of this review.

Preparation and Evaluation of Folate Modified PEG-PLLA Nanoparticles Loaded with Lycorine for Glioma Treatment

Lycorine is a kind of natural active ingredient with a strong antitumor effect. In this study, folate ligand-conjugated polyethylene glycol-block-poly(l-lactide) (PEG-PLLA) nanoparticles (FA-PEG-PLLA NPs) were designed to deliver lycorine to enhance its anti-glioma activity. The successful preparation of the FA-PEG-PLLA polymer was confirmed by 1H-NMR, FT-IR, XRD, TGA, and DSC. The optimal formulation for LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs was determined by response surface analysis as follows: sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) of 1%, carrier material of 0.03 g, organic phase volume of 3 mL, and ultrasonic power of 20%. The LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs exhibited an encapsulation efficiency of 83.58% and a particle size of 49.71 nm, demonstrating good stability. Hemolysis experiments, MTT assays, and cell scratch assays revealed excellent biocompatibility of FA-PEG-PLLA and superior anti-glioma activity of LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs compared to the raw drug. Additionally, cell apoptosis assays, ROS experiments, and western blot analysis demonstrated that LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs contributed to cell apoptosis by inducing ROS generation and increasing the expression of NF-κB inhibitory protein IκBα. These results suggested that LYC@FA-PEG-PLLA NPs hold promise for glioma treatment.

Polypeptide-Based Systems: From Synthesis to Application in Drug Delivery

Synthetic polypeptides are biocompatible and biodegradable macromolecules whose composition and architecture can vary over a wide range. Their unique ability to form secondary structures, as well as different pathways of modification and biofunctionalization due to the diversity of amino acids, provide variation in the physicochemical and biological properties of polypeptide-containing materials. In this review article, we summarize the advances in the synthesis of polypeptides and their copolymers and the application of these systems for drug delivery in the form of (nano)particles or hydrogels. The issues, such as the diversity of polypeptide-containing (nano)particle types, the methods for their preparation and drug loading, as well as the influence of physicochemical characteristics on stability, degradability, cellular uptake, cytotoxicity, hemolysis, and immunogenicity of polypeptide-containing nanoparticles and their drug formulations, are comprehensively discussed. Finally, recent advances in the development of certain drug nanoformulations for peptides, proteins, gene delivery, cancer therapy, and antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory systems are summarized.

Synthesis of Multifunctional Polymersomes Prepared by Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly

Polymersomes are an exciting modality for drug delivery due to their structural similarity to biological cells and their ability to encapsulate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs. In this regard, the current work aimed to develop multifunctional polymersomes, integrating dye (with hydrophobic Nile red and hydrophilic sulfo-cyanine5-NHS ester as model drugs) encapsulation, stimulus responsiveness, and surface-ligand modifications. Polymersomes constituting poly(N-2-hydroxypropylmethacrylamide)-b-poly(N-(2-(methylthio)ethyl)acrylamide) (PHPMAm-b-PMTEAM) are prepared by aqueous dispersion RAFT-mediated polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA). The hydrophilic block lengths have an effect on the obtained morphologies, with short chain P(HPMAm)₁₆ affording spheres and long chain P(HPMAm)₄₃ yielding vesicles. This further induces different responses to H₂O₂, with spheres fragmenting and vesicles aggregating. Folic acid (FA) is successfully conjugated to the P(HPMAm)₄₃, which self-assembles into FA-functionalized P(HPMAm)₄₃-b-P(MTEAM)₃₀₀ polymersomes. The FA-functionalized P(HPMAm)₄₃-b-P(MTEAM)₃₀₀ polymersomes entrap both hydrophobic Nile red (NR) and hydrophilic Cy5 dye. The NR-loaded FA-linked polymersomes exhibit a controlled release of the encapsulated NR dye when exposed to 10 mM H₂O₂. All the polymersomes formed are stable in human plasma and well-tolerated in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. These preliminary results demonstrate that, with simple and scalable chemistry, PISA offers access to different shapes and opens up the possibility of the one-pot synthesis of multicompartmental and responsive polymersomes.

Design of Chitosan-Coated, Quercetin-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles for Enhanced PSMA-Specific Activity on LnCap Prostate Cancer Cells

Nanoparticles are designed to entrap drugs at a high concentration, escape clearance by the immune system, be selectively taken up by cancer cells, and release bioactives in a rate-modulated manner. In this study, quercetin-loaded PLGA nanoparticles were prepared and optimized to determine whether coating with chitosan would increase the cellular uptake of the nanoparticles and if the targeting ability of folic acid as a ligand can provide selective toxicity and enhanced uptake in model LnCap prostate cancer cells, which express high levels of the receptor prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA), compared to PC-3 cells, that have relatively low PSMA expression. A design of experiments approach was used to optimize the PLGA nanoparticles to have the maximum quercetin loading, optimal cationic charge, and folic acid coating. We examined the in vitro release of quercetin and comparative cytotoxicity and cellular uptake of the optimized PLGA nanoparticles and revealed that the targeted nano-system provided sustained, pH-dependent quercetin release, and higher cytotoxicity and cellular uptake, compared to the non-targeted nano-system on LnCap cells. There was no significant difference in the cytotoxicity or cellular uptake between the targeted and non-targeted nano-systems on PC-3 cells (featured by low levels of PSMA), pointing to a PSMA-specific mechanism of action of the targeted nano-system. The findings suggest that the nano-system can be used as an efficient nanocarrier for the targeted delivery and release of quercetin (and other similar chemotherapeutics) against prostate cancer cells.

Small molecules as cancer targeting ligands: Shifting the paradigm

Conventional chemotherapeutics exploration is hampered due to their nonspecific distribution leading to unintended serious toxicity. Toxicity is so severe that deciding to go for chemotherapy becomes a question of concern for many terminally ill cancer patients. However, with evolving times nanotechnology assisted in reducing the haywire distribution and channelizing the movement of drug-enclosing drug delivery systems to cancer cells to a greater extent, yet toxicity issues still could not be obliterated. Thus, active targeting appeared as a refuge, where ligands actively or specifically deliver linked chemotherapeutics and carriers to cancer cells. For a very long time, large molecule weight/macromolecular ligands (peptides and big polymers) were considered the first choice for ligand-directed active cancer targeting, due to their specificity towards overexpressed native cancer receptors. However, complex characterization, instability, and the expensive nature demanded to reconnoitre better alternatives for macromolecule ligands. The concept of small molecules as ligands emerged from the idea that few chemical molecules including chemotherapeutics have a higher affinity for cancer receptors, which are overexpressed on cell membranes, and may have the ability to assist in drug cellular uptake through endocytosis. But now the question is, can they assist the conjugated macro cargos to enter the cell or not? This present review will provide a holistic overview of the small molecule ligands explored till now.

Harnessing Folate-Functionalized Nasal Delivery of Dox-Erlo-Loaded Biopolymeric Nanoparticles in Cancer Treatment: Development, Optimization, Characterization, and Biodistribution Analysis

The aim of the present study is to develop Doxorubicin-Erlotinib nanoparticles (Dox-Erlo NPs) and folate-armored Dox-Erlo-NP conjugates for targeting glioma cancer. Glioma is one of the most common progressive cancerous growths originating from brain glial cells. However, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is only semi-permeable and is highly selective as to which compounds are let through; designing compounds that overcome this constraint is therefore a major challenge in the development of pharmaceutical agents. We demonstrate that the NP conjugates studied in this paper may ameliorate the BBB penetration and enrich the drug concentration in the target bypassing the BBB. NPs were prepared using a biopolymer with a double-emulsion solvent evaporation technique and functionalized with folic acid for site-specific targeting. Dox-Erlo NPs and Dox-Erlo-NP conjugates were extensively characterized in vitro for various parameters. Dox-Erlo NPs and Dox-Erlo-NP conjugates incurred a z-average of 95.35 ± 10.25 nm and 110.12 ± 9.2 nm, respectively. The zeta potentials of the Dox-Erlo NPs and Dox-Erlo-NP conjugates were observed at -18.1 mV and -25.1 mV, respectively. A TEM image has shown that the NPs were well-dispersed, uniform, de-aggregated, and consistent. A hemolytic assay confirmed hemocompatibility with the developed formulation and that it can be safely administered. Dox-Erlo-NP conjugates significantly reduced the number of viable cells to 24.66 ± 2.08% and 32.33 ± 2.51% in U87 and C6 cells, respectively, and IC50 values of 3.064 µM and 3.350 µM in U87 and C6 cells were reported after 24 h, respectively. A biodistribution study revealed that a significant concentration of Dox and Erlo were estimated in the brain relative to drug suspension. Dox-Erlo-NP conjugates were also stable for three months. The findings suggest that the developed Dox-Erlo-NP conjugates may be a promising agent for administration in glioma therapy.

Synthesis, Characterization and Photocleavage of Bis-decyl Pteroic Acid: A Folate Derivative with Affinity to Biomembranes†

Here, we provide mechanistic insight to the photocleavage of a compound in the folate family, namely pteroic acid. A bis-decyl chain derivative of pteroic acid was synthesized, structurally characterized and photochemically investigated. We showed that, like folic acid, pteroic acid and the decylated derivative undergo a photocleavage reaction in the presence of H₂ O, while no reaction was observed in methanol solution. Furthermore, density functional theory calculations were carried out to predict relative stabilities of hypothetical mono-, bis- and tris-decylated pteroic acid derivatives to help rationalize the regioselectivity of the bis-decyl pteroic acid product. Additionally, the lipophilicity of the bis-decyl pteroic acid appears to confer a hydrophobic property enabling an interaction with biomembranes.

Metal-organic frameworks-based biosensor for microRNA detection in prostate cancer cell lines

In this research, a novel dye-labeled probe (FAM-Probe) based on a nano metal-organic framework (NMOF) functionalized with folate (NMOF-FA) was prepared and applied as a fluorescent sensing platform for the recognition of intracellular microRNA (miRNA-21) in DU145, PC3, and LNCaP cancer cells. The NMOF-FA can be easily assembled with a dye-labeled miR-21 probe (FAM-Probe21), causing an efficient fluorescence quenching of fluorescence of FAM fluorophore. The probe can be specifically catch up by cancerous cells through targeting their folate receptor by folic acid on the FAM-Probe21-NMOF-FA complex. Upon the interaction of the FAM-Probe21-NMOF-FA with complementary miRNA (miR-21), the fluorescence intensity can be recovered, providing a specific system to detect miRNAs in prostate cancer cells. We used the proposed probe for cell-specific intracellular miRNA-21 sensing, following the alteration expression level of miRNA-21 inside living cells. Thus, the FAM-Probe21-NMOF-FA complex can be used as a new miRNA sensing method in biomedicine studies.

Recent advances in multifunctional dendrimer-based nanoprobes for breast cancer theranostics

Breast cancer (BC) undoubtedly is one of the most common type of cancers amongst women, which causes about 5 million deaths annually. The treatments and diagnostic therapy choices currently available for Breast Cancer is very much limited . Advancements in novel nanocarrier could be a promising strategy for diagnosis and treatments of this deadly disease. Dendrimer nanoformulation could be functionalized and explored for efficient targeting of overexpressed receptors on Breast Cancer cells to achieve targeted drug delivery, for diagnostics and to overcome the resistance of the cells towards particular chemotherapeutic. Additionally, the dendrimer have shown promising potential in the improvement of therapeutic value for Breast Cancer therapy by achieving synergistic co-delivery of chemotherapeutics and genetic materials for multidirectional treatment. In this review, we have highlighted the application of dendrimer as novel multifunctional nanoplatforms for the treatment and diagnosis of Breast Cancer.

Photonic and magnetic materials for on-demand local drug delivery

Nanomedicine has been considered a promising tool for biomedical research and clinical practice in the 21st century because of the great impact nanomaterials could have on human health. The generation of new smart nanomaterials, which enable time- and space-controlled drug delivery, improve the limitations of conventional treatments, such as non-specific targeting, poor biodistribution and permeability. These smart nanomaterials can respond to internal biological stimuli (pH, enzyme expression and redox potential) and/or external stimuli (such as temperature, ultrasound, magnetic field and light) to further the precision of therapies. To this end, photonic and magnetic nanoparticles, such as gold, silver and iron oxide, have been used to increase sensitivity and responsiveness to external stimuli. In this review, we aim to report the main and most recent systems that involve photonic or magnetic nanomaterials for external stimulus-responsive drug release. The uniqueness of this review lies in highlighting the versatility of integrating these materials within different carriers. This leads to enhanced performance in terms of in vitro and in vivo efficacy, stability and toxicity. We also point out the current regulatory challenges for the translation of these systems from the bench to the bedside, as well as the yet unresolved matter regarding the standardization of these materials.

Enhanced Uptake and Phototoxicity of C60@albumin Hybrids by Folate Bioconjugation

Fullerenes are considered excellent photosensitizers, being highly suitable for photodynamic therapy (PDT). A lack of water solubility and low biocompatibility are, in many instances, still hampering the full exploitation of their potential in nanomedicine. Here, we used human serum albumin (HSA) to disperse fullerenes by binding up to five fullerene cages inside the hydrophobic cavities. Albumin was bioconjugated with folic acid to specifically address the folate receptors that are usually overexpressed in several solid tumors. Concurrently, tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate, TRITC, a tag for imaging, was conjugated to C₆₀@HSA in order to build an effective phototheranostic platform. The in vitro experiments demonstrated that: (i) HSA disperses C₆₀ molecules in a physiological environment, (ii) HSA, upon C₆₀ binding, maintains its biological identity and biocompatibility, (iii) the C₆₀@HSA complex shows a significant visible-light-induced production of reactive oxygen species, and (iv) folate bioconjugation improves both the internalization and the PDT-induced phototoxicity of the C₆₀@HSA complex in HeLa cells.

Gelatin Coating for the Improvement of Stability and Cell Uptake of Hydrophobic Drug-Containing Liposomes

PURPOSE

Most therapeutic agents have limitations owing to low selectivity and poor solubility, resulting in post-treatment side effects. Therefore, there is a need to improve solubility and develop new formulations to deliver therapeutic agents specifically to the target site. Gelatin is a natural protein that is composed of several amino acids. Previous studies revealed that gelatin contains arginyl-glycyl-aspartic acid (RGD) sequences that become ligands for the integrin receptors expressed on cancer cells. Thus, in this study, we aimed to increase the efficiency of drug delivery into cancer cells by coating drug-encapsulating liposomes with gelatin (gelatin-coated liposomes, GCLs).

METHODS

Liposomes were coated with gelatin using electrostatic interaction and covalent bonding. GCLs were compared with PEGylated liposomes in terms of their size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, stability, dissolution profile, and cell uptake. Results: Small-sized and physically stable GCLs were prepared, and they showed high drug-encapsulation efficiency. An in vitro dissolution study showed sustained release depending on the degree of gelatin coating. Cell uptake studies showed that GCLs were superior to PEGylated liposomes in terms of cancer cell-targeting ability.

CONCLUSIONS

GCLs can be a novel and promising carrier system for targeted anticancer agent delivery. GCLs, which exhibited various characteristics depending on the coating degree, could be utilized in various ways in future studies.

Silica Nanoparticle Internalization Improves Chemotactic Behaviour of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells Acting on the SDF1α/CXCR4 Axis

Human mesenchymal stem cell (hMSC)-based therapy is an emerging resource in regenerative medicine. Despite the innate ability of hMSCs to migrate to sites of injury, homing of infused hMSCs to the target tissue is inefficient. It was shown that silica nanoparticles (SiO₂-NPs), previously developed to track the stem cells after transplantation, accumulated in lysosomes leading to a transient blockage of the autophagic flux. Since CXCR4 turnover is mainly regulated by autophagy, we tested the effect of SiO₂-NPs on chemotactic migration of hMSCs along the SDF1α/CXCR4 axis that plays a pivotal role in directing MSC homing to sites of injury. Our results showed that SiO₂-NP internalization augmented CXCR4 surface levels. We demonstrated that SiO₂-NP-dependent CXCR4 increase was transient, and it reversed at the same time as lysosomal compartment normalization. Furthermore, the autophagy inhibitor Bafilomycin-A1 reproduced CXCR4 overexpression in control hMSCs confirming the direct effect of the autophagic degradation blockage on CXCR4 expression. Chemotaxis assays showed that SiO₂-NPs increased hMSC migration toward SDF1α. In contrast, migration improvement was not observed in TNFα/TNFR axis, due to the proteasome-dependent TNFR regulation. Overall, our findings demonstrated that SiO₂-NP internalization increases the chemotactic behaviour of hMSCs acting on the SDF1α/CXCR4 axis, unmasking a high potential to improve hMSC migration to sites of injury and therapeutic efficacy upon cell injection in vivo.

Laser photo-thermal therapy of epithelial carcinoma using pterin-6-carboxylic acid conjugated gold nanoparticles

Gold nanoparticles functionalized with folic acid toward the internalization into cancer cells have received considerable attention recently. Folic acid is recognized by folate receptors, which are overexpressed in several cancer cells; it is limited in normal cells. In this work, pterin-6-carboxylic acid is proposed as an agonist of folic acid since the pterin-6-carboxylic acid structure has a pterin moiety, the same as folic acid that is recognized by the folate receptor. Here a simple photochemical synthesis of gold nanoparticles functionalized with pterin-6-carboxylic acid is studied. These conjugates were used to cause photothermal damage of HeLa cells irradiating with a diode laser of 808 nm. Pterin-6-carboxylic acid-conjugated gold nanoparticles caused the death of the cell after near-infrared irradiation, dose-dependently. These results indicate a possible internalization of AuNPs via folate receptor-mediated endocytosis due to the recognition or interaction between the folate receptors of HeLa cells and pterin, P6CA.