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Theleritis C, Stefanou MI, Demetriou M, Alevyzakis E, Triantafyllou K, Smyrnis N, Spandidos DA, Rizos E. Association of gut dysbiosis with first‑episode psychosis (Review). Mol Med Rep 2024; 30:130. [PMID: 38785152 PMCID: PMC11148526 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2024.13254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The gut‑microbiota‑brain axis is a complex bidirectional communication system linking the gastrointestinal tract to the brain. Changes in the balance, composition and diversity of the gut‑microbiota (gut dysbiosis) have been found to be associated with the development of psychosis. Early‑life stress, along with various stressors encountered in different developmental phases, have been shown to be associated with the abnormal composition of the gut microbiota, leading to irregular immunological and neuroendocrine functions, which are potentially responsible for the occurrence of first‑episode psychosis (FEP). The aim of the present narrative review was to summarize the significant differences of the altered microbiome composition in patients suffering from FEP vs. healthy controls, and to discuss its effects on the occurrence and intensity of symptoms in FEP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christos Theleritis
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece
| | - Maria-Ioanna Stefanou
- Second Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece
| | - Marina Demetriou
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece
| | - Evangelos Alevyzakis
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Triantafyllou
- Hepatogastroenterology Unit, Second Department of Propaedeutic Internal Medicine, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece
| | - Nikolaos Smyrnis
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece
| | - Demetrios A. Spandidos
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Emmanouil Rizos
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece
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Chen Y, Yu H, Xue F, Bai J, Guo L, Peng Z. 16S rRNA gene sequencing reveals altered gut microbiota in young adults with schizophrenia and prominent negative symptoms. Brain Behav 2024; 14:e3579. [PMID: 38841824 PMCID: PMC11154826 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.3579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 05/06/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Gut dysbiosis has been established as a characteristic of schizophrenia (SCH). However, the signatures regarding SCH patients with prominent negative symptoms (SCH-N) in young adults have been poorly elucidated. METHODS Stool samples were obtained from 30 young adults with SCH-N, 32 SCH patients with prominent positive symptoms (SCH-P) along with 36 healthy controls (HCs). Microbial diversity and composition were analyzed by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Meanwhile, psychiatric symptoms were assessed by the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS). RESULTS There is a significant difference in β-diversity but not α-diversity indexes among the three groups. Moreover, we found a higher abundance of Fusobacteria and Proteobacteria phyla and a lower abundance of Firmicutes phyla in SCH-N when compared with HC. Besides, we identified a diagnostic potential panel comprising six genera (Coprococcus, Monoglobus, Prevotellaceae_NK3B31_group, Escherichia-Shigella, Dorea, and Butyricicoccus) that can distinguish SCH-N from HC (area under the curve = 0.939). However, the difference in microbial composition between the SCH-N and SCH-P is much less than that between SCH-N and the HC, and SCH-N and SCH-P cannot be effectively distinguished by gut microbiota. CONCLUSION The composition of gut microbiota was changed in the patients with SCH-N, which may help in further understanding of pathogenesis in young adults with SCH-N.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi‐Huan Chen
- Department of PsychiatryXijing HospitalAir Force Medical UniversityXi'anChina
| | - Huan Yu
- Department of PsychiatryXijing HospitalAir Force Medical UniversityXi'anChina
| | - Fen Xue
- Department of PsychiatryXijing HospitalAir Force Medical UniversityXi'anChina
| | - Jie Bai
- Department of PsychiatryXijing HospitalAir Force Medical UniversityXi'anChina
- Department of PsychiatryGaoxin HospitalXi'anChina
| | - Li Guo
- Department of PsychiatryXijing HospitalAir Force Medical UniversityXi'anChina
| | - Zheng‐Wu Peng
- Department of PsychiatryXijing HospitalAir Force Medical UniversityXi'anChina
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Singh J, Vanlallawmzuali, Singh A, Biswal S, Zomuansangi R, Lalbiaktluangi C, Singh BP, Singh PK, Vellingiri B, Iyer M, Ram H, Udey B, Yadav MK. Microbiota-brain axis: Exploring the role of gut microbiota in psychiatric disorders - A comprehensive review. Asian J Psychiatr 2024; 97:104068. [PMID: 38776563 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajp.2024.104068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Mental illness is a hidden epidemic in modern science that has gradually spread worldwide. According to estimates from the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 10% of the world's population suffers from various mental diseases each year. Worldwide, financial and health burdens on society are increasing annually. Therefore, understanding the different factors that can influence mental illness is required to formulate novel and effective treatments and interventions to combat mental illness. Gut microbiota, consisting of diverse microbial communities residing in the gastrointestinal tract, exert profound effects on the central nervous system through the gut-brain axis. The gut-brain axis serves as a conduit for bidirectional communication between the two systems, enabling the gut microbiota to affect emotional and cognitive functions. Dysbiosis, or an imbalance in the gut microbiota, is associated with an increased susceptibility to mental health disorders and psychiatric illnesses. Gut microbiota is one of the most diverse and abundant groups of microbes that have been found to interact with the central nervous system and play important physiological functions in the human gut, thus greatly affecting the development of mental illnesses. The interaction between gut microbiota and mental health-related illnesses is a multifaceted and promising field of study. This review explores the mechanisms by which gut microbiota influences mental health, encompassing the modulation of neurotransmitter production, neuroinflammation, and integrity of the gut barrier. In addition, it emphasizes a thorough understanding of how the gut microbiome affects various psychiatric conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jawahar Singh
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Vanlallawmzuali
- Department of Biotechnology, Mizoram Central University, Pachhunga University College Campus, Aizawl, Mizoram, India
| | - Amit Singh
- Department of Microbiology Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151401, India
| | - Suryanarayan Biswal
- Department of Human Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151401, India
| | - Ruth Zomuansangi
- Department of Microbiology Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151401, India
| | - C Lalbiaktluangi
- Department of Microbiology Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151401, India
| | - Bhim Pratap Singh
- Department of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences (AES), National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management (NIFTEM), Sonepat, Haryana, India
| | - Prashant Kumar Singh
- Department of Biotechnology, Pachhunga University College Campus, Mizoram University (A Central University), Aizawl 796001, Mizoram, India
| | - Balachandar Vellingiri
- Stem cell and Regenerative Medicine/Translational Research, Department of Zoology, School of Basic Sciences, Central University of Punjab (CUPB), Bathinda, Punjab 151401, India
| | - Mahalaxmi Iyer
- Department of Microbiology Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151401, India
| | - Heera Ram
- Department of Zoology, Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342001, India
| | - Bharat Udey
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS), Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Mukesh Kumar Yadav
- Department of Microbiology Central University of Punjab, Bathinda 151401, India.
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Mosquera FEC, Guevara-Montoya MC, Serna-Ramirez V, Liscano Y. Neuroinflammation and Schizophrenia: New Therapeutic Strategies through Psychobiotics, Nanotechnology, and Artificial Intelligence (AI). J Pers Med 2024; 14:391. [PMID: 38673018 PMCID: PMC11051547 DOI: 10.3390/jpm14040391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 03/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of schizophrenia, affecting approximately 1% of the global population, underscores the urgency for innovative therapeutic strategies. Recent insights into the role of neuroinflammation, the gut-brain axis, and the microbiota in schizophrenia pathogenesis have paved the way for the exploration of psychobiotics as a novel treatment avenue. These interventions, targeting the gut microbiome, offer a promising approach to ameliorating psychiatric symptoms. Furthermore, advancements in artificial intelligence and nanotechnology are set to revolutionize psychobiotic development and application, promising to enhance their production, precision, and effectiveness. This interdisciplinary approach heralds a new era in schizophrenia management, potentially transforming patient outcomes and offering a beacon of hope for those afflicted by this complex disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yamil Liscano
- Grupo de Investigación en Salud Integral (GISI), Departamento Facultad de Salud, Universidad Santiago de Cali, Cali 760035, Colombia; (F.E.C.M.); (M.C.G.-M.); (V.S.-R.)
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5
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Mhanna A, Martini N, Hmaydoosh G, Hamwi G, Jarjanazi M, Zaifah G, Kazzazo R, Haji Mohamad A, Alshehabi Z. The correlation between gut microbiota and both neurotransmitters and mental disorders: A narrative review. Medicine (Baltimore) 2024; 103:e37114. [PMID: 38306525 PMCID: PMC10843545 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000037114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The gastrointestinal tract is embedded with microorganisms of numerous genera, referred to as gut microbiota. Gut microbiota has multiple effects on many body organs, including the brain. There is a bidirectional connection between the gut and brain called the gut-brain-axis, and these connections are formed through immunological, neuronal, and neuroendocrine pathways. In addition, gut microbiota modulates the synthesis and functioning of neurotransmitters. Therefore, the disruption of the gut microbiota in the composition or function, which is known as dysbiosis, is associated with the pathogenesis of many mental disorders, such as schizophrenia, depression, and other psychiatric disorders. This review aims to summarize the modulation role of the gut microbiota in 4 prominent neurotransmitters (tryptophan and serotonergic system, dopamine, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and glutamate), as well as its association with 4 psychiatric disorders (schizophrenia, depression, anxiety disorders, and autism spectrum disorder). More future research is required to develop efficient gut-microbiota-based therapies for these illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amjad Mhanna
- Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syrian Arab Republic
- Stemosis for Scientific Research, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
| | - Nafiza Martini
- Stemosis for Scientific Research, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
- Damascus University, Faculty of Medicine, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
| | - Ghefar Hmaydoosh
- Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syrian Arab Republic
- Stemosis for Scientific Research, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
| | - George Hamwi
- Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syrian Arab Republic
- Stemosis for Scientific Research, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
| | - Mulham Jarjanazi
- Pediatric Surgery Resident, Pediatric Surgery Department, Aleppo University Hospital, Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic
| | - Ghaith Zaifah
- Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syrian Arab Republic
- Stemosis for Scientific Research, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
| | - Reem Kazzazo
- Faculty of Medicine, Tishreen University, Latakia, Syrian Arab Republic
- Stemosis for Scientific Research, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
| | - Aya Haji Mohamad
- Stemosis for Scientific Research, Damascus, Syrian Arab Republic
- Faculty of Medicine, Aleppo University, Aleppo University Hospital, Aleppo, Syrian Arab Republic
| | - Zuheir Alshehabi
- Department of Pathology, Tishreen University Hospital, Latakia, Syrian Arab Republic
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Sabit H, Kassab A, Alaa D, Mohamed S, Abdel-Ghany S, Mansy M, Said OA, Khalifa MA, Hafiz H, Abushady AM. The Effect of Probiotic Supplementation on the Gut-Brain Axis in Psychiatric Patients. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:4080-4099. [PMID: 37232729 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45050260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The pathophysiology of several psychiatric diseases may entail disturbances in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and metabolic pathways. Variations in how these effects present themselves may be connected to individual variances in clinical symptoms and treatment responses, such as the observation that a significant fraction of participants do not respond to current antipsychotic drugs. A bidirectional signaling pathway between the central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract is known as the microbiota-gut-brain axis. The large and small intestines contain more than 100 trillion microbial cells, contributing to the intestinal ecosystem's incredible complexity. Interactions between the microbiota and intestinal epithelium can alter brain physiology and affect mood and behavior. There has recently been a focus on how these relationships impact mental health. According to evidence, intestinal microbiota may play a role in neurological and mental illnesses. Intestinal metabolites of microbial origin, such as short-chain fatty acids, tryptophan metabolites, and bacterial components that might stimulate the host's immune system, are mentioned in this review. We aim to shed some on the growing role of gut microbiota in inducing/manipulating several psychiatric disorders, which may pave the way for novel microbiota-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussein Sabit
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Misr University for Science and Technology, Giza P.O. Box 77, Egypt
| | - Areej Kassab
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Misr University for Science and Technology, Giza P.O. Box 77, Egypt
| | - Donia Alaa
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Misr University for Science and Technology, Giza P.O. Box 77, Egypt
| | - Shaza Mohamed
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Misr University for Science and Technology, Giza P.O. Box 77, Egypt
| | - Shaimaa Abdel-Ghany
- Department of Environmental Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Misr University for Science and Technology, Giza P.O. Box 77, Egypt
| | - Mohamed Mansy
- Department of Maxillofacial Surgery and Diagnostic Sciences, College of Dentistry, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Osama A Said
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, College of Biotechnology, Misr University for Science and Technology, Giza P.O. Box 77, Egypt
| | - Mona A Khalifa
- Faculty of Art and Science, Samtah, Jazan University, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Halah Hafiz
- Clinical Nutrition Department, Factually of Applied Medical Science, Umm Alqura University, Mecca 24382, Saudi Arabia
| | - Asmaa M Abushady
- School of Biotechnology, Nile University, Giza 41516, Egypt
- Genetic Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
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7
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Yoshikawa S, Taniguchi K, Sawamura H, Ikeda Y, Tsuji A, Matsuda S. A New Concept of Associations between Gut Microbiota, Immunity and Central Nervous System for the Innovative Treatment of Neurodegenerative Disorders. Metabolites 2022; 12:1052. [PMID: 36355135 PMCID: PMC9692629 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12111052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Nerve cell death accounts for various neurodegenerative disorders, in which altered immunity to the integrated central nervous system (CNS) might have destructive consequences. This undesirable immune response often affects the progressive neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, schizophrenia and/or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). It has been shown that commensal gut microbiota could influence the brain and/or several machineries of immune function. In other words, neurodegenerative disorders may be connected to the gut-brain-immune correlational system. The engrams in the brain could retain the information of a certain inflammation in the body which might be involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Tactics involving the use of probiotics and/or fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) are now evolving as the most promising and/or valuable for the modification of the gut-brain-immune axis. More deliberation of this concept and the roles of gut microbiota would lead to the development of stupendous treatments for the prevention of, and/or therapeutics for, various intractable diseases including several neurodegenerative disorders.
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Franklin F, Rajamanikam A, Raju CS, Gill JS, Francis B, Sy-Cherng LW, Kumar S. Higher amoebic and metronidazole resistant forms of Blastocystis sp. seen in schizophrenic patients. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:313. [PMID: 36064639 PMCID: PMC9446727 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05418-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Blastocystis sp. is one of the most common colonisers of the intestinal tract that demonstrate strong interaction with accompanying gut bacteria. Previously, the protozoan isolated from individuals with irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) showed altered phenotypic features suggesting that it can be triggered to become pathogenic. Previous studies reported altered gut microbiota and high prevalence of Blastocystis sp. in schizophrenia patients. However, the phenotypic characteristics of Blastocystis sp. isolated from individuals with SZ have yet to be described. Methods In this study, faecal samples from 50 patients with severe schizophrenia (SZ) and 100 non-schizophrenic (NS) individuals were screened for Blastocystis sp. infection. Positive isolates were subjected to genotypic and phenotypic characterization. Results We found that 12 out of 50 (24%) SZ and 5 out of 100 (5%) NS individuals were detected Blastocystis sp. positive using both in vitro culture and PCR method with no significant association to age and gender. Out of the 15 sequenced isolates, ST3 was the most prevalent subtype (66.7%) followed by ST1 (20%) and ST6 (13.3%). The isolates from SZ individuals demonstrated significant slower growth rate (34.9 ± 15.6 h) and larger range of cell diameter (3.3–140 µm). We detected higher amoebic forms and metronidazole resistance among SZ isolates with variation in cell surface glycoprotein where 98% of cells from SZ showed consistent medium to high binding affinity (+ 2 to + 3) to Concavalin A staining compared to NS isolates that demonstrated only 76% high lectin (+ 3) binding affinity. Cysteine and serine protease levels were predominantly found among SZ isolates. We also demonstrate the presence of metalloprotease in Blastocystis sp. especially among NS isolates. Introduction of solubilised antigens from SZ isolates increased the cell proliferation of HCT116 cells by two fold when compared to NS isolates. Conclusion Our findings demonstrated Blastocystis sp. isolated from SZ individuals showed variation in phenotype specifically in morphology and drug resistance. The findings indicate that the gut environment (SZ and NS) and treatment of SZ could have influenced the phenotype of Blastocystis sp. Graphical Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05418-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freddy Franklin
- Department of Parasitology, Universiti Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.,Department of Medical Microbiology, Universiti Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Arutchelvan Rajamanikam
- Department of Parasitology, Universiti Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.,Department of Medical Microbiology, Universiti Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | | | - Jesjeet Singh Gill
- Department of Phycological Medicine, Pusat Perubatan Universiti Malaya (PPUM), Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Benedict Francis
- Department of Phycological Medicine, Pusat Perubatan Universiti Malaya (PPUM), Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Luke Woon Sy-Cherng
- Department of Psychiatry, Pusat Perubatan Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (PPUKM), Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia
| | - Suresh Kumar
- Department of Parasitology, Universiti Malaya (UM), Kuala Lumpur, 50603, Malaysia.
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Tsamakis K, Galinaki S, Alevyzakis E, Hortis I, Tsiptsios D, Kollintza E, Kympouropoulos S, Triantafyllou K, Smyrnis N, Rizos E. Gut Microbiome: A Brief Review on Its Role in Schizophrenia and First Episode of Psychosis. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10061121. [PMID: 35744639 PMCID: PMC9227193 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10061121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a growing body of evidence highlighting the role of gut microbiota as a biological basis of psychiatric disorders. The existing literature suggest that cognitive and emotional activities can be influenced by microbes through the microbiota–gut–brain axis and implies an association between alterations in the gut microbiome and several psychiatric conditions, such as autism, depression, bipolar disorder and psychosis. The aim of this review is to summarise recent findings and provide concise updates on the latest progress of the role of gut microbiota in the development and maintenance of psychiatric symptoms in schizophrenia and the first episode of psychosis. Despite the lack of consistent findings in regard to specific microbiome changes related to psychosis, the emerging literature reports significant differences in the gut microbiome of schizophrenic subjects compared to healthy controls and increasingly outlines the significance of an altered microbiome composition in the pathogenesis, development, symptom severity and prognosis of psychosis. Further human studies are, however, required, which should focus on identifying the drivers of microbiota changes in psychosis and establish the direction of causality between psychosis and microbiome alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos Tsamakis
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece; (S.G.); (E.A.); (I.H.); (E.K.); (S.K.); (N.S.); (E.R.)
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), King’s College London, London SE5 8AB, UK
- Institute of Medical and Biomedical Education, St George’s, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK
- Correspondence:
| | - Sofia Galinaki
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece; (S.G.); (E.A.); (I.H.); (E.K.); (S.K.); (N.S.); (E.R.)
| | - Evangelos Alevyzakis
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece; (S.G.); (E.A.); (I.H.); (E.K.); (S.K.); (N.S.); (E.R.)
| | - Ioannis Hortis
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece; (S.G.); (E.A.); (I.H.); (E.K.); (S.K.); (N.S.); (E.R.)
| | - Dimitrios Tsiptsios
- Neurology Department, Democritus University of Thrace, 68100 Alexandroupolis, Greece;
| | - Evangelia Kollintza
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece; (S.G.); (E.A.); (I.H.); (E.K.); (S.K.); (N.S.); (E.R.)
| | - Stylianos Kympouropoulos
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece; (S.G.); (E.A.); (I.H.); (E.K.); (S.K.); (N.S.); (E.R.)
| | - Konstantinos Triantafyllou
- Hepatogastroenterology Unit, 2nd Department of Propaedeutic Internal Medicine, Medical School, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece;
| | - Nikolaos Smyrnis
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece; (S.G.); (E.A.); (I.H.); (E.K.); (S.K.); (N.S.); (E.R.)
| | - Emmanouil Rizos
- Second Department of Psychiatry, Attikon University General Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 12462 Athens, Greece; (S.G.); (E.A.); (I.H.); (E.K.); (S.K.); (N.S.); (E.R.)
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