The Role of Parental Communication and Emotional Intelligence in Child-to-Parent Violence

"I lock myself in my room and cry in frustration": an analysis of adolescent behaviors of child-to-parent violence

Child-to-parent violence (CPV) encompasses behaviors such as hitting, insulting, or threatening parents. Over the past decade, the number of CPV cases has increased significantly. While previous research has largely focused on classifying CPV behaviors and examining their causes, there is limited investigation into what happens immediately after CPV episodes. This study aims to describe the behaviors of adolescents following violent actions in both mild and severe cases of CPV. A randomized sample of 1,067 Spanish adolescents, participating in a national CPV project, was studied using the Child-to-Parent Aggression Questionnaire. Among them, 410 adolescents (41.91% boys and 57.84% girls) reported engaging in some form of CPV behavior in the past year, and 47 adolescents met the criteria for severe and repeated CPV. Specifically, 26 adolescents exhibited psychological and 27 exhibited physical CPV toward their mother, while 21 adolescents exhibited psychological and 15 physical CPV toward their father. Adolescents were asked, "What do you do after?" Following thematic analysis, adolescents' responses were categorized into 6 themes and 17 sub-themes in mild cases. A possible sequence in adolescents' responses was identified, divided into three phases. In the first phase, adolescents felt bad after their violent behavior, expressed remorse, reflected on it, and sought a safe place. In the second phase, apologizing to parents was the most common response, reported by 70.52% of adolescents. Finally, in the third phase, in addition to apologizing, adolescents attempted to talk with their parents, gave them a hug, or committed to not repeating the behavior. In contrast, 8% of adolescents normalized their behavior, joked about it, or justified their actions. In severe cases, most subthemes were consistent with those observed in mild CPV cases. However, in contrast to milder cases, severe cases showed a lower percentage of adolescents who felt bad or apologized and a higher proportion who normalized, avoided talking about, or justified their violent actions (23.4% of adolescents with severe CPV). This study highlights practical implications for interventions, such as the importance of helping them express their emotions, recognize the harm caused, identify safe spaces, people, or activities, and support them in the process of apologizing.

Psychosocial Adjustment Factors Associated with Child-Parent Violence: The Role of Family Communication and a Transgressive Attitude in Adolescence

According to official sources, the amounts of children-to-parent violence (CPV) in most advanced countries have been on an increasing trend for more than a decade, which generates great social concern. This phenomenon has also aroused enormous interest among researchers, who have identified risk and protective factors related to adolescent CPV in numerous studies. The aim of the present study was to analyse the relationship between offensive family communication and CPV in adolescence, and the moderating role that two psychosocial adjustment factors may be playing: a positive attitude towards the transgression of rules and psychological distress. A total of 7787 adolescents between 11 and 16 years of age (M = 13.37, SD = 1.34) from secondary schools in the state of Nuevo León (Mexico) participated in the study (51.5% boys, 48.5% girls). Structural equation modelling was performed using structural equation modelling software (EQS). The results showed that offensive family communication has a direct and significant relationship with CPV. It was also observed that there is an indirect relationship between both variables, through the relationships of psychological distress and a positive attitude towards the transgression of rules. The multigroup analysis performed showed gender differences in some of these relationships. Finally, the results and their implications in the field of family intervention are discussed.

Instruments of Child-to-Parent Violence: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

This systematic review and reliability generalization meta-analysis synthesized psychometric literature on instrumentation assessing child-to-parent violence published through September 2023 across four databases. In the screening, we identified studies reporting Cronbach's alpha internal consistency estimates for the child-to-parent violence scales. The eligible reliability coefficients ranged from 0.610 to 0.930, mostly exceeding the minimum threshold of 0.700. Random-effects models calculated pooled Cronbach's alphas separately for global, father-specific, and mother-specific subscales. The results demonstrated cumulative values of 0.83 (global: standard error = 0.0129), 0.800 (fathers: standard error = 0.0203), and 0.81 (mothers: standard error = 0.0179), denoting largely adequate reliability. However, significant between-study heterogeneity was observed. While the mean alpha levels seem acceptable for most tools, substantial variability coupled with the possibility of some studies violating reliability assumptions indicates that a conservative interpretation is warranted. Ongoing scale refinement and additional psychometric evaluations will strengthen the rigor methodology in this developing research domain. However, these results should be interpreted with caution, as there is a high level of heterogeneity, and it is possible that some studies have not verified the assumptions underlying Cronbach's alpha.

"My [Search Strategies] Keep Missing You": A Scoping Review to Map Child-to-Parent Violence in Childhood Aggression Literature

Child-to-parent violence is often referred to as one of the most 'under-researched' forms of family violence. However, it is closely associated with one of the most widely researched areas of research globally: childhood aggression. How child-instigated aggression can harm parents is widely referred to, but different framings, definitions, and conceptualisations are used which creates problems when attempting to identify the broader literature which may be relevant to child-to-parent violence researchers.

METHODS

Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews, 55 papers were reviewed from EBSCO, PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science to explore how location, field of the researcher, and terminology can impact how researchers conceptualise and frame this form of harm.

RESULTS

Three themes were identified (1) child-to-parent violence is a behavioural indicator of childhood distress or developmental needs, (2) children are 'perpetrators' of deviant behaviour, and (3) the parents are 'victims' of child-to-parent violence.

CONCLUSIONS

Children and parents are both harmed by child-to-parent violence. It is important that future researchers and practitioners recognise the bi-directionality of the parent-child relationship, and not be complicit in hiding the harms caused by child-to-parent violence by subsuming it under the broader childhood aggression literature.

Risk Factors in Specialists and Generalists of Child-to-Parent Violence: Gender Differences and Predictors of Reactive and Proactive Reasons

Recent research on child-to-parent violence (CPV) is advancing in the analysis of the specialist profile (aggressors who show only CPV) and the generalist profile (aggressors who show peer violence in addition to CPV). However, although differences have been found between girls and boys in the risk factors for CPV, there are no studies that analyze these differences according to the type of aggressor. Likewise, the importance of identifying the factors that differentially predict reactive and proactive CPV has been noted but has not been examined in different types of aggressors. The aims of this study were to examine gender differences in CPV patterns, emotional intelligence, parental victimization, and parental permissiveness and to analyze whether these variables predict reactive and proactive CPV, both according to aggressor type. A total of 1559 Spanish CPV aggressors (54.6% females) aged between 12 and 18 years from educational centers participated in the study (22.4% exercised only CPV (specialists) and 77.6% exercised peer violence in addition to CPV (generalists)). In general, no differences were found between girls and boys in the specialist profile, but differences were found in the generalist profile. Specifically, generalist girls exercised more psychological and control/domain violence toward mothers, while boys exercised more physical violence toward fathers and had more parental permissiveness. In specialists, parental victimization predicted reactive CPV, while parental permissiveness predicted proactive CPV. In contrast, in generalists, both parental victimization and parental permissiveness predicted both reactive and proactive CPV. Low emotional regulation was a significant predictor in both cases. This study identifies differences among girls and boys in CPV risk factors and among variables that predict reactive and proactive CPV and that these results differ between specialist and generalist aggressors. Implications for research and professional practice are discussed, highlighting the need to design and implement prevention and intervention programs specialized in the type of aggressor, paying special attention to gender differences and to the factors that motivate one or the other type of CPV.

A Qualitative Exploration of Practitioners' Understanding of and Response to Child-to-Parent Aggression

There has been limited research and policy directed toward defining and understanding child-to-parent aggression (CPA), resulting in inconsistent definitions, understandings, and responses, which has a detrimental impact on families. In particular, there have been limited qualitative studies of those working on the frontline of CPA, hindering the development of effective policy. The present qualitative study therefore aimed to explore practitioner perspectives of CPA. Twenty-five practitioners from diverse fields (e.g., youth justice, police, charities) participated in four focus groups relating to their experiences of working with CPA in the United Kingdom. Thematic analysis of focus groups revealed three key themes: definitions of CPA, understanding of CPA risk factors, and responding to CPA. Practitioners understood CPA to be a broad use of aggression to intimidate and control parents and highlighted a range of individual (e.g., mental health, substance abuse) and social (e.g., parenting, gangs) risk factors for CPA. Further, practitioners felt that current methods of reporting CPA were ineffective and may have a detrimental impact on families. The findings of this study have implications for CPA policy and support the need for a multiagency and coordinated strategy for responding to CPA.

Differential Profile of Specialist Aggressor versus Generalist Aggressor in Child-to-Parent Violence

Research on violence in general highlights the need to differentiate between those aggressors who only show specialized violence in the family context and those who also show generalized violence in other contexts outside the family. However, in the phenomenon of child-to-parent violence (CPV), the distinctive characteristics of this profile have not been yet analyzed. The aim of this study was to identify the typology of specialist aggressor versus the typology of generalist aggressor and examine whether they differ in their characteristics. A total of 1559 CPV aggressors participated, with ages between 12 and 18 years, of whom 22.4% exerted violence only towards parents (specialist aggressors) and 77.6% also exerted violence towards peers (generalist aggressors). The results show that specialized violence and generalized violence seem to follow different patterns according to age. The generalists were characterized by a more negative profile than the specialists. Specifically, the former showed more CPV and for more reasons, both reactive and proactive. Regarding individual characteristics, they obtained lower levels of emotional intelligence and resilience. Concerning family characteristics, they presented higher levels of insecure parental attachment and parental violence (direct and observed). The predictive variables retained in the regression model represented approximately 16.4% of the variation in the type of aggressor. This study supports the classification based on the specificity versus generality of violence, as it was found that specialist and generalist CPV aggressors differ significantly in their characteristics. It is considered that the findings could help to identify the differential mechanisms through which both types of aggressors have developed CPV. Further analysis of this profile can be of great use for the design of intervention and prevention programs adapted to the needs of each typology.

Profile of the Victimized Aggressors in Child-to-Parent Violence: Differences According to the Type of Victimization

Background/Objective

One of the main predictors of child-to-parent violence (CPV) is childhood victimization. Recent research indicates the need to study different types of CPV aggressors. However, the distinctive characteristics of the profile of the victimized aggressor and whether these characteristics differ according to the type of victimization have not been yet analyzed. Were examined differences between four types of CPV aggressors: with family victimization, with school victimization, with polyvictimization, and without victimization experiences.

Method

A total of 1,559 Spanish adolescents aged between 12 and 18 years participated.

Results

Compared to nonvictimized aggressors, victimized aggressors generally exercise more reactive and instrumental CPV and show more insecure parental attachment and less emotional and coping competencies. Additionally, among the types of victimization, polyvictimized aggressors show worse adjustment compared to those with a unique type of victimization. There are also significant differences according to the gender of the aggressor; however, the interaction effect between the type of aggressor and gender is not significant.

Conclusions

Considering the profile of the victimized aggressor and the type of victimization experienced in CPV can provide valuable empirical information for the approach of differential explanatory mechanisms and for the design of prevention and intervention strategies adapted to the needs of this profile.

Child-to-Parent Violence, Peer Victimization and Cybervictimization in Spanish Adolescents

The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between child-to-parent violence (CPV) (high, moderate and low), peer victimization (PV) (relational and overt, both physical and verbal) and cybervictimization (CV) (relational and overt), taking into account the role of sex. 1304 adolescents (53.14% girls) between the ages of 11 and 18 enrolled at secondary schools in the Autonomous Communities of Valencia, Aragón and Andalusia participated in the study. Adolescents with high CPV scores obtained higher scores for all types of PV and CV compared to the other CPV groups. Boys scored higher than girls in overt physical PV and in overt CV and girls obtained higher scores in relational PV. A statistically significant interaction effect was observed; boys with high CPV scores reported greater overt CV. The results suggest the importance of CPV in relation to specific forms of PV and CV and highlight the need to take into account the different processes of family socialization between boys and girls to reduce the likelihood of adolescents being victimized.

Predictive Psychosocial Factors of Child-to-Parent Violence in a Sample of Mexican Adolescents

The aim of this study was to carry out a psychosocial analysis of child-to-parent violence (CPV) in a sample of school adolescents, considering a set of individual variables (psychological distress, problematic use of social networking sites, and perceived non-conformist social reputation) and family variables (open and problematic communication with parents) according to sex. The sample consisted of 3,731 adolescents (54% boys), aged between 14 and 16 years (M = 14.6 years, SD = 0.567), from the state of Nuevo León, Mexico. The scores of the boys and girls were analyzed to check for differences. Also, correlations between all the study variables were calculated. Finally, a multiple stepwise regression analysis was carried out for the total sample and also for boys and girls separately. Results confirmed the important role of individual variables as predictors of CPV in boys and girls. The main difference between boys and girls was observed in the predictive weight of problematic use of social networking sites, which was higher in girls than in boys. Open communication with the father was a significant factor for predicting the decrease of CPV levels in the case of boys, while open communication with the mother predicted the decrease of CPV in girls. Problematic communication with the mother showed similar values in boys and girls when predicting CPV, however, the predictive weight of problematic communication with the father was higher in girls than in boys. These results are interesting and have important implications for the prevention of CPV.

The Relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy of Chinese Vocational College Students

The purpose of this study is to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The sample consisted of 529 students. The tools used to measure the relationship between emotional intelligence and entrepreneurial self-efficacy were the Emotional Intelligence Scale developed by Wong and Law and the Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy Scale developed by Zhan. The results showed that there was a significant difference between male and female college students in entrepreneurial self-efficacy, but no significant difference between male and female college students in emotional intelligence. In entrepreneurial self-efficacy as well as emotional intelligence, there were significant differences between the third grade and the first and second grade, respectively. In addition, the results showed a significant positive correlation between entrepreneurial self-efficacy and emotional intelligence. With the improvement of the emotional intelligence level of vocational college students, the entrepreneurial self-efficacy will increase. The lower the emotional intelligence, the faster the improvement in entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The higher the emotional intelligence, the more stable the entrepreneurial self-efficacy. The university stage is considered an ideal entrepreneurial period, especially for vocational colleges' students, who pay more attention to entrepreneurship and innovation education. Encouraging the cultivation of the emotional intelligence of vocational college students in life will help to improve personal entrepreneurial self-efficacy. This research emphasizes that improving the emotional intelligence of vocational college students can enhance their sense of self-efficacy in entrepreneurship and help students with entrepreneurship and career development.