Parental Educational Attainment and Social Environmental of Urban Public Schools in the U.S.: Blacks' Diminished Returns

COVID-19 Pandemic as an Equalizer of the Health Returns of Educational Attainment for Black and White Americans

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 pandemic has immensely impacted the social and personal lives of individuals around the globe. Marginalized-related diminished returns (MDRs) theory suggests that educational attainment shows a weaker protective effect for health and behavioral outcomes for Black individuals compared to White individuals. Previous studies conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated diminished returns of educational attainment for Black individuals compared to White individuals.

OBJECTIVES

The study has three objectives: First, to test the association between educational attainment and cigarette smoking, e-cigarette vaping, presence of chronic medical conditions (CMC), self-rated health (SRH), depressive symptoms, and obesity; second, to explore racial differences in these associations in the USA during the COVID-19 pandemic; and third, to compare the interaction of race and return of educational attainment pre- and post-COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

This study utilized data from the Health Information National Trends Survey (HINTS) 2020. Total sample included 1313 adult American; among them, 77.4% (n = 1017) were non-Hispanic White, and 22.6% (n = 296) were non-Hispanic Black. Educational attainment was the independent variable operationalized as years of education. The main outcomes were cigarette smoking, e-cigarette vaping, CMC, SRH, depressive symptoms, and obesity. Age, gender, and baseline physical health were covariates. Race/ethnicity was an effect modifier.

RESULTS

Educational attainment was significantly associated with lower CMC, SRH, depressive symptoms, obesity, cigarette smoking, and e-cigarette vaping. Educational attainment did not show a significant interaction with race on any of our outcomes, suggesting that the health returns of education is similar between non-Hispanic White and non-Hispanic Black individuals.

CONCLUSION

COVID-19 may have operated as an equalizer of the returns of educational attainment. This observation may be because White may have more to lose; Black communities may be more resilient or have economic and social policies that buffered unemployment and poverty regardless of historical anti-Black oppression.

Household Income and Subsequent Youth Tobacco Initiation: Minorities' Diminished Returns

Introduction

Household income, a prominent socioeconomic status (SES) indicator, is known to mitigate youth engagement in various health risk behaviors, including tobacco use. Nevertheless, the Minorities' Diminished Returns theory suggests that this protective effect may be less pronounced for racial and ethnic minorities compared to majority groups. This study aimed to investigate the protective role of high household income against tobacco use among youth and explore potential variations across different racial and ethnic groups.

Methods

Conducted as a longitudinal analysis, this study utilized data from the initial three years of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study spanning 2016-2022. The cohort consisted of 11,875 American youth aged 9-10 years, tracked over a three-year period. The dependent variable was tobacco initiation, irrespective of the product, while household income served as the independent variable. Covariates included youth age, gender, family education, structure, and employment, with race/ethnicity acting as the moderating variable.

Results

Out of the 8,754 American youth who were non-smokers at baseline, 3.1% (n = 269) initiated tobacco use during the 30-month follow-up, while 96.9% (n = 8,485) remained non-smokers. A family income exceeding $100,000 per year was associated with a lower hazard ratio for tobacco initiation (transitioning to ever-use) over the follow-up period (HR = 0.620, p = 0.022). However, household income of $50-100k exhibited significant interactions with race/ethnicity on tobacco initiation, indicating weaker protective effects for Black (HR for interaction = 7.860, p < 0.001) and Latino (HR for interaction = 3.461, p = 0.001) youth compared to non-Latino White youth.

Conclusions

Within the United States, the racialization and minoritization of youth diminish the protective effects of economic resources, such as high household income, against the transition to tobacco use. Non-Latino White youth, the most socially privileged group, experience greater protection from their elevated household income regarding tobacco initiation compared to Black and Latino youth, who face minoritization and racialization. Policymakers should address not only the SES gap but also the mechanisms contributing to the heightened risk of tobacco use among racialized and minoritized youth from affluent backgrounds.

Race, Educational Attainment, and Sustained High Body Mass Index over 24 Years of Follow-up in Middle-Aged and Older Adults

BACKGROUND

Educational attainment has been linked to reduced risk of health problems such as obesity, but research suggests that this effect may be weaker for non-Hispanic Black individuals compared to non-Hispanic White individuals, a pattern known as minorities' diminished returns (MDRs).

OBJECTIVES

This study is aimed at examining the differential association between educational attainment and sustained high body mass index (BMI) among non-Hispanic Black and non-Hispanic White middle-aged and older adults in the USA.

METHODS

Using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) spanning 1992-2016, we analyzed a national sample of 35,110 individuals, including 7766 non-Hispanic Black and 27,344 non-Hispanic White individuals. We used logistic regression models to examine the relationship between educational attainment, race, and sustained high BMI, while controlling for age, sex, and marital status at baseline.

RESULTS

Approximately 30.6% of the sample (n = 10,727) had sustained high BMI, while 69.4% (n = 24,383) had sustained low BMI over the period of follow-up. Higher levels of educational attainment were associated with a lower risk of sustained high BMI. We also found, however, that the protective effects of education against sustained high BMI were weaker for non-Hispanic Blacks compared to non-Hispanic Whites.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the protective effects of educational attainment against sustained high BMI may be more robust for non-Hispanic Whites than for non-Hispanic Blacks. Further research should explore whether these results are found in other racial and ethnic minorities and whether potential life history experiences may contribute to these disparities.

Intersectional Effects of Race and Educational Attainment on Memory Function of Middle-Aged and Older Adults With Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

High educational attainment may protect individuals, particularly middle-aged and older adults, against a wide range of health risks, including memory decline with age; however, this protection is less clear in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, this effect may differ across racial groups. According to the Marginalized-Related Diminished Return (MDR) theory, for example, the protective effect of high educational attainment on mental and physical health shows a weaker protective effect for racial minority groups, particularly Black people compared to White individuals.

OBJECTIVES

This longitudinal study used data of middle-aged and older adults with AD with two aims: first, to test the association between educational attainment and memory, and second, to explore racial differences in this association in the USA.

METHODS

Data came from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (ADNI) study. The total sample was 1673 American middle-aged and older adults. The independent variable was educational attainment measured as years of education. The main outcome was memory operationalized as Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) Verbal Forgetting percentage (VF%). Age, gender, and follow-up duration were covariates. Race was the effect modifier. Linear regression model was utilized to analyze the data.

RESULTS

Of all participants, 68 (4.1%) were Black, and the remaining were White, with a mean age of 75 years old. In the pooled sample, educational attainment did not show a significant association with memory, independent of confounders. Educational attainment showed a significant interaction with race on memory, with higher educational attainment having a different effect on memory in White patients compared to Black patients.

CONCLUSION

The effect of higher educational attainment on memory differs for Black patients with AD compared to White patients. To prevent cognitive disparities by race, we need to go beyond racial inequality in access to resources (e.g., education) and minimize diminished returns of educational attainment for racial minorities. To tackle health inequalities, social policies should not be limited to equalizing socioeconomic status but also help minority groups leverage their available resources, such as educational attainment, and secure tangible outcomes.

Allostatic load in the US general population: Race and educational intersection

Objectives

Educational attainment is a protective factor against poor health, but high educational attainment has a weaker effect on black people than on white people; this pattern has been called marginalization-related diminished returns (MDRs). Using a national sample of white people and black people 25 years and above, this study estimates the association between high educational attainment and allostatic load between black people and white people, and within each group.

Study design

This cross-sectional study uses data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) between 1999 and 2016, including 2761 black people and 7058 white people. The outcome variable of interest was the Allostatic Load Scale (AL). We created the allostatic load scale by using 8 biomarkers, then created a binary variable (if ALS≥4 as 1 and ALS<4 as 0) to present elevated AL.

Methods

We used several weighted modified Poisson regression models controlling for educational attainment (a predictor) and race (a moderator variable), age, sex, and marital status. We also controlled the models for smoking and drinking status as health behavior variables. As a sensitivity analysis, we ran several sets of regression analysis using the AL scale as a continuous outcome variable.

Results

We found an inverse association between AL and educational attainment. The interaction between race and education has resulted in an inverse association between AL and educational attainment, with a weaker association in black people than in white people. We found similar findings by running regression models with AL as a continuous variable.

Conclusions

We observed a weaker association between educational attainment and AL in black people than in white people, suggesting that educational attainment has more robust protection against allostatic load for white people than black people.

Association between School Achievement and Tobacco Susceptibility among US Adolescents: Ethnic Differences

BACKGROUND

Although risky behaviors such as educational problems and tobacco use tend to co-occur, these associations may vary across diverse ethnic groups, in part because ethnic minorities tend to reside in worse neighborhoods and tend to attend worse schools than Non-Latino White adolescents.

AIM

To compare the association between baseline school achievement (student grades) and subsequent tobacco use susceptibility (openness to smoke in future) by ethnicity, we compared African American, Latino, and Non-Latino White adolescents in the US over a four-year period.

METHODS

This longitudinal study followed 3636 adolescents who were never smokers at baseline for a period of four years. Baseline and four-year data of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH) study were used for this analysis. All participants were 12 to 17 years old at baseline and were either Non-Latino White (Majority), African American (Minority), or Latino (Minority). The outcome was a tobacco use susceptibility score at wave 4 which was defined as openness to use tobacco in the future, measured at year four. The predictor was school achievement at wave 1, measured as grades from F to A+. The moderator was ethnicity (African American, Latino, Non-Latino White), and covariates were age, gender, parental education, and family structure.

RESULTS

Our linear regressions in the pooled sample showed an inverse association between baseline school achievement and subsequent tobacco use susceptibility four years later. However, this inverse association was weaker for ethnic minorities than for Non-Latino White adolescents, as documented by interaction effects between ethnic minority status and baseline school grades.

CONCLUSION

Higher educational success better correlates with lower tobacco use susceptibility of non-Latino White than African American and Latino adolescents, which may reflect some tobacco use susceptibility of Latino and African American adolescents with highly educated parents. Future research should investigate how social context such as high-risk school environment, neighborhood risk, peer risk, and other mechanisms increase behavioral risk of educationally successful African American and Latino adolescents.

Self-Rated Health of US Older Adults in the General Social Survey (GSS) 1972-2021: Complexity of the Associations of Education and Immigration

BACKGROUND

Multiple studies have shown a link between high education and better self-rated health (SRH). However, recent studies have suggested that immigrants may experience a weaker association between education and SRH than native-born individuals.

AIM

Using a national sample of US older adults, this investigation studied whether there is an inverse association between education and SRH and whether immigration status moderates this association.

METHODS

This study is based on marginalized diminished returns (MDRs) that argues socioeconomic status (SES) resources, such as education, may generate less favorable health outcomes for marginalized groups. Data were from the General Social Survey (GSS) 1972-2021, a cross-sectional survey in the US. A total of 7999 participants who were 65+ years old were included. The independent variable was education, measured as years of schooling and treated as a continuous variable. The dependent variable was poor/fair (poor) SRH. Immigration status was the moderator. Age, sex, and race were control variables. Logistic regressions were used for data analysis.

RESULTS

We found that higher levels of education were protective against poor SRH. However, this effect was weaker for immigrants than for US-born individuals.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that native-born US older individuals are more likely to experience the protective effect of their education against poor SRH compared to their immigrants. Eliminating health inequality between immigrant and US-born individuals needs policies that go beyond socioeconomic status (SES) equality and address barriers that hinder highly-educated immigrants.

Parental Education and Adolescents' Asthma: The Role of Ethnicity

While high parental education is associated with better health, this association may be weaker for ethnic minority than for ethnic majority families. It is unknown whether the association between parental education and adolescents' asthma also varies by ethnicity.

AIM

To study the association between parental education and adolescents' asthma overall and by ethnicity.

METHODS

The current study used data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH)-Adolescents study. All participants were 12 to 17-year-old non-smokers (n = 8652). The outcome of interest was adolescents' asthma. The predictor of interest was baseline parental education, the covariates were age, sex, and number of parents present at baseline, and the moderator was ethnicity.

RESULTS

According to logistic regression analyses, higher parental education was predictive of adolescents' asthma; however, this association was weaker for Latino than non-Latino adolescents (OR 1.771; CI 1.282-2.446). We did not find a significant difference in the effect of parental education on asthma of White and African American adolescents. Our stratified models also showed that higher parental education was associated with lower asthma for non-Latino but not for Latino adolescents.

CONCLUSION

The effect of high parental education on adolescents' asthma prevalence differs between Latino and non-Latino families, with Latino families showing weaker protective effects of parental education on adolescents' asthma. Future research should test the role of exposure to environmental pollutants, neighborhood quality, and prevalence of smoking in social network members as well as other contextual factors at home, in school, and in the neighborhood that may increase prevalence of asthma in Latino adolescents regardless of their parental education. Given that these potential causes are multi-level, potential causes of such disparities should be tested in future multi-level research.

Race and Ethnic Differences in the Protective Effect of Parental Educational Attainment on Subsequent Perceived Tobacco Norms among US Youth

BACKGROUND

Although parental educational attainment is known to be associated with a lower prevalence of behaviors such as tobacco use, these effects are shown to be weaker for Black than White youth. It is important to study whether this difference is due to higher perceived tobacco use norms for Black youth.

AIM

To study the association between parental educational attainment and perceived tobacco use norms overall and by race/ethnicity among youth in the US.

METHODS

The current study used four years of follow-up data from the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health (PATH-Youth) study conducted between 2013 and 2017. All participants were 12- to 17-year-old non-smokers at baseline and were successfully followed for four years (n = 4329). The outcome of interest was perceived tobacco use norms risk at year four. The predictor of interest was baseline parental educational attainment, the moderator was race/ethnicity, and the covariates were age, sex, and parental marital status at baseline.

RESULTS

Our linear regressions in the pooled sample showed that higher parental educational attainment at baseline was predictive of perceived disapproval of tobacco use at year four; however, this association was weaker for Latino than non-Latino youth. Our stratified models also showed that higher parental educational attainment was associated with perceived tobacco use norms for non-Latino but not for Latino youth.

CONCLUSION

The effect of high parental educational attainment on anti-tobacco norms differs between Latino and non-Latino youth. Latino youth with highly educated parents remain at risk of tobacco use, while non-Latino youth with highly educated parents show low susceptibility to tobacco use.

Immigration Status, Educational Level, and Perceived Discrimination in Europe

BACKGROUND

Multiple studies have been conducted to test the moderating effect of immigration on the positive health results yielded through educational attainment. However, no study has been conducted to examine the role of immigration as a moderator in the association between educational level and perceived discrimination in Europe.

AIM

We aimed to study whether an inverse association exists between educational level and perceived discrimination in European countries and whether immigration status moderates the association between educational level and perceived discrimination.

METHODS

Data from the 10th round of the cross-sectional European Social Survey (ESS) were used in this cross-sectional study. A total of 17,596 participants between 15-90 years old who lived in European countries were included. The independent variable was educational level, a categorical variable, and the dependent variable was perceived discrimination. Immigration status was the moderator, and age and sex were confounders.

RESULTS

Of 17,596 participants, 16,632 (94.5%) were native-born and 964 were immigrants (5.5%). We found that higher levels of educational level were protective against perceived discrimination, which was also found in immigrant participants; however, the effect was weaker.

CONCLUSIONS

This study found that educational level was a protective factor against perceived discrimination. This effect, however, was more robust in the native-born participants than in their immigrant counterparts.

Cingulo-opercular and Cingulo-parietal Brain Networks Functional Connectivity in Pre-adolescents: Multiplicative Effects of Race, Ethnicity, and Parental Education

Introduction

A growing body of research has shown a diminished association between socioeconomic status (SES) indicators and a wide range of neuroimaging indicators for racial and ethnic minorities compared to majority groups. However, less is known about these effects for resting-state functional connectivity between various brain networks.

Purpose

This study investigated racial and ethnic variation in the correlation between parental education and resting-state functional connectivity between the cingulo-opercular (CO) and cingulo-parietal (CP) networks in children.

Methods

This cross-sectional study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study; we analyzed the resting-state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (rsfMRI) data of 8,464 American pre-adolescents between the ages of 9 and 10. The main outcome measured was resting-state functional connectivity between the CO and CP networks calculated using rsfMRI. The independent variable was parental education, which was treated as a nominal variable. Age, sex, and family marital status were the study covariates. Race and ethnicity were the moderators. Mixed-effects regression models were used for data analysis, with and without interaction terms between parental education and race and ethnicity.

Results

Higher parental education was associated with higher resting-state functional connectivity between the CO and CP networks. Race and ethnicity both showed statistically significant interactions with parental education on children's resting-state functional connectivity between CO and CP networks, suggesting that the correlation between parental education and the resting-state functional connectivity was significantly weaker for Black and Hispanic pre-adolescents compared to White and non-Hispanic pre-adolescents.

Conclusions

In line with the Minorities' Diminished Returns theory, the association between parental education and pre-adolescents resting-state functional connectivity between CO and CP networks may be weaker in Black and Hispanic children than in White and non-Hispanic children. The weaker link between parental education and brain functional connectivity for Blacks and Hispanics than for Whites and non-Hispanics may reflect racism, racialization, and social stratification that collectively minimize the returns of SES indicators, such as parental education for non-Whites, who become others in the US.

Parental Educational Attainment, the Superior Temporal Cortical Surface Area, and Reading Ability among American Children: A Test of Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown that parental educational attainment is associated with a larger superior temporal cortical surface area associated with higher reading ability in children. Simultaneously, the marginalization-related diminished returns (MDRs) framework suggests that, due to structural racism and social stratification, returns of parental education are smaller for black and other racial/ethnic minority children compared to their white counterparts.

PURPOSE

This study used a large national sample of 9-10-year-old American children to investigate associations between parental educational attainment, the right and left superior temporal cortical surface area, and reading ability across diverse racial/ethnic groups.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional analysis that included 10,817 9-10-year-old children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Parental educational attainment was treated as a five-level categorical variable. Children's right and left superior temporal cortical surface area and reading ability were continuous variables. Race/ethnicity was the moderator. To adjust for the nested nature of the ABCD data, mixed-effects regression models were used to test the associations between parental education, superior temporal cortical surface area, and reading ability overall and by race/ethnicity.

RESULTS

Overall, high parental educational attainment was associated with greater superior temporal cortical surface area and reading ability in children. In the pooled sample, we found statistically significant interactions between race/ethnicity and parental educational attainment on children's right and left superior temporal cortical surface area, suggesting that high parental educational attainment has a smaller boosting effect on children's superior temporal cortical surface area for black than white children. We also found a significant interaction between race and the left superior temporal surface area on reading ability, indicating weaker associations for Alaskan Natives, Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders (AIAN/NHPI) than white children. We also found interactions between race and parental educational attainment on reading ability, indicating more potent effects for black children than white children.

CONCLUSION

While parental educational attainment may improve children's superior temporal cortical surface area, promoting reading ability, this effect may be unequal across racial/ethnic groups. To minimize the racial/ethnic gap in children's brain development and school achievement, we need to address societal barriers that diminish parental educational attainment's marginal returns for middle-class minority families. Social and public policies need to go beyond equal access and address structural and societal barriers that hinder middle-class families of color and their children. Future research should test how racism, social stratification, segregation, and discrimination, which shape the daily lives of non-white individuals, take a toll on children's brains and academic development.

Race, Family Conflict and Suicidal Thoughts and Behaviors among 9-10-Year-Old American Children

Family conflict is known to operate as a major risk factor for children’s suicidal thoughts and behaviors (STBs). However, it is unknown whether this effect is similar or different in Black and White children. Objectives: We compared Black and White children for the association between family conflict and STBs in a national sample of 9–10-year-old American children. Methods: This cross-sectional study used data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. This study included 9918 White or Black children between the ages of 9 and 10 living in married households. The predictor variable was family conflict. Race was the moderator. The outcome variable was STBs, treated as a count variable, reflecting positive STB items that were endorsed. Covariates included ethnicity, sex, age, immigration status, family structure, parental education, and parental employment, and household income. Poisson regression was used for data analysis. Results: Of all participants, 7751 were Whites, and 2167 were Blacks. In the pooled sample and in the absence of interaction terms, high family conflict was associated with higher STBs. A statistically significant association was found between Black race and family conflict, suggesting that the association between family conflict and STBs is stronger in Black than White children. Conclusion: The association between family conflict and STBs is stronger in Black than White children. Black children with family conflict may be at a higher risk of STBs than White children with the same family conflict level. These findings align with the literature on the more significant salience of social relations as determinants of mental health of Black than White people. Reducing family conflict should be regarded a significant element of suicide prevention for Black children in the US.

Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Cerebellum Cortex Fractional Anisotropy in Pre-Adolescents

Introduction

Cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy is a proxy of the integrity of the cerebellum cortex. However, less is known about how it is shaped by race and socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental education and household income.

Purpose

In a national sample of American pre-adolescents, this study had two aims: to test the effects of two SES indicators, namely parental education and household income, on cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy, and to explore racial differences in these effects.

Methods

Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study, we analyzed the diffusion Magnetic Resonance Imaging (dMRI) data of 9565, 9-10-year-old pre-adolescents. The main outcomes were cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy separately calculated for right and left hemispheres using dMRI. The independent variables were parental education and household income; both treated as categorical variables. Age, sex, ethnicity, and family marital status were the covariates. Race was the moderator. To analyze the data, we used mixed-effects regression models without and with interaction terms. We controlled for propensity score and MRI device.

Results

High parental education and household income were associated with lower right and left cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy. In the pooled sample, we found significant interactions between race and parental education and household income, suggesting that the effects of parental education and household income on the right and left cerebellum cortex fractional anisotropy are all significantly larger for White than for Black pre-adolescents.

Conclusions

The effects of SES indicators, namely parental education and household income, on pre-adolescents' cerebellum cortex microstructure and integrity are weaker in Black than in White families. This finding is in line with the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs), defined as weaker effects of SES indicators for Blacks and other racial and minority groups than for Whites.

Resting-State Functional Connectivity between Putamen and Salience Network and Childhood Body Mass Index

Introduction: Although the putamen has a significant role in reward-seeking and motivated behaviors, including eating and food-seeking, minorities’ diminished returns (MDRs) suggest that individual-level risk and protective factors have weaker effects for Non-Hispanic Black than Non-Hispanic White individuals. However, limited research is available on the relevance of MDRs in terms of the role of putamen functional connectivity on body mass index (BMI). Purpose: Building on the MDRs framework and conceptualizing race and socioeconomic status (SES) indicators as social constructs, we explored racial and SES differences in the associations between putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and children’s BMI. Methods: For this cross-sectional study, we used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data of 6473 9–10-year-old Non-Hispanic Black and Non-Hispanic White children from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The primary independent variable was putamen functional connectivity to the salience network, measured by fMRI. The primary outcome was the children’s BMI. Age, sex, neighborhood income, and family structure were the covariates. Race, family structure, parental education, and household income were potential moderators. For data analysis, we used mixed-effect models in the overall sample and by race. Results: Higher right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network was associated with higher BMI in Non-Hispanic White children. The same association was missing for Non-Hispanic Black children. While there was no overall association in the pooled sample, a significant interaction was found, suggesting that the association between right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and children’s BMI was modified by race. Compared to Non-Hispanic White children, Non-Hispanic Black children showed a weaker association between right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and BMI. While parental education and household income did not moderate our association of interest, marital status altered the associations between putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and children’s BMI. These patterns were observed for right but not left putamen. Other/Mixed Race children also showed a pattern similar to Non-Hispanic Black children. Conclusions: The association between right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network and children’s BMI may depend on race and marital status but not parental education and household income. While right putamen functional connectivity to the salience network is associated with Non-Hispanic White children’s BMI, Non-Hispanic Black children’ BMI remains high regardless of their putamen functional connectivity to the salience network. This finding is in line with MDRs, which attributes diminished effects of individual-risk and protective factors for Non-Hispanic Black children to racism, stratification, and segregation.

Parental Education, Household Income, and Cortical Surface Area among 9-10 Years Old Children: Minorities' Diminished Returns

Introduction: Although the effects of parental education and household income on children's brain development are well established, less is known about possible variation in these effects across diverse racial and ethnic groups. According to the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) phenomenon, due to structural racism, social stratification, and residential segregation, parental educational attainment and household income show weaker effects for non-White than White children. Purpose: Built on the MDRs framework and conceptualizing race as a social rather than a biological factor, this study explored racial and ethnic variation in the magnitude of the effects of parental education and household income on children's whole-brain cortical surface area. Methods: For this cross-sectional study, we used baseline socioeconomic and structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI) data of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. Our analytical sample was 10,262 American children between ages 9 and 10. The independent variables were parental education and household income. The primary outcome was the children's whole-brain cortical surface area. Age, sex, and family marital status were covariates. Race and ethnicity were the moderators. We used mixed-effects regression models for data analysis as participants were nested within families and study sites. Results: High parental education and household income were associated with larger children's whole-brain cortical surface area. The effects of high parental education and high household income on children's whole-brain cortical surface area were modified by race. Compared to White children, Black children showed a diminished return of high parental education on the whole-brain cortical surface area when compared to White children. Asian American children showed weaker effects of household income on the whole-brain cortical surface area when compared to White children. We could not find differential associations between parental education and household income with the whole-brain cortical surface area, when compared to White children, for non-Hispanic and Hispanic children. Conclusions: The effects of parental educational attainment and household income on children's whole-brain cortical surface area are weaker in non-White than White families. Although parental education and income contribute to children's brain development, these effects are unequal across racial groups.

Not Race or Age but Their Interaction Predicts Pre-Adolescents' Inhibitory Control

Background

African American pre-adolescents are at a higher risk of risky behaviors such as aggression, drug use, alcohol use, and subsequent poor outcomes compared to Caucasian pre-adolescents. All these high-risk behaviors are connected to low levels of inhibitory control (IC).

Aim

We used the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) data to compare Caucasian and African American pre-adolescents for the effect of age on pre-adolescents IC, a driver of high-risk behaviors.

Methods

This cross-sectional analysis included 4,626 pre-adolescents between ages 9 and 10 from the ABCD study. Regression was used to analyze the data. The predictor variable was age measured in months. The main outcome was IC measured by a stop-signal task (SST). Race was the effect modifier.

Results

Overall, age was associated with IC. Race also showed a statistically significant interaction with age on pre-adolescents' IC, indicating weaker effects of age on IC for African American than Caucasian pre-adolescents.

Conclusion

Age-related changes in IC are more pronounced for Caucasian than African American pre-adolescents. To eliminate the racial gap in brain development between African American and Caucasian pre-adolescents, we should address structural and societal barriers that alter age-related development for racial minority pre-adolescents. Social and public policies, rather than health policies, are needed to address structural and societal barriers that hinder African American adolescents' brain development. Interventions should add resources to the urban areas that many African American families live in so their children can have better age-related brain development. Such changes would be essential given IC in pre-adolescents is a predictor of a wide range of behaviors.

Race, Ethnicity, Family Socioeconomic Status, and Children's Hippocampus Volume

Introduction

The hippocampus has a significant role in memory, learning, and cognition. Although hippocampal size is highly susceptible to family socioeconomic status (SES) and associated stress, very little is known on racial and ethnic group differences in the effects of SES indicators on hippocampus volume among American children.

Purpose

This study explored the multiplicative effects of race, ethnicity, and family SES on hippocampus volume among American children.

Methods

Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD), we analyzed the functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) data of 9390 9-10 years old children. The main outcome was hippocampus volume. The predictor was parental education. Subjective family SES was the independent variable. Age, sex, and marital status were the covariates. Racial and ethnic group membership were the moderators. To analyze the data, we used regression models.

Results

High subjective family SES was associated with larger hippocampus volume. This effect was significantly larger for Whites than Black families.

Conclusions

The effect of subjective family SES on children's hippocampus volume is weaker in Black than White families.

Maternal Education at Birth and Youth Breakfast Consumption at Age 15: Blacks' Diminished Returns

Background

Based on the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, high socioeconomic status (SES) such as parental education shows weaker effects for Blacks than Whites. For example, high SES Black individuals report a high level of depression, anxiety, suicide, chronic disease, smoking, and mortality. Limited knowledge exists on MDRs of parental education on dietary behavior.

Aims

Built on the MDRs framework, we tested the hypothesis of whether the effect of parental education on eating breakfast differs for Black compared to White families. We hypothesized that there is an association between mothers' educational attainment and eating breakfast and compared Blacks and Whites for the effect of mothers' educational attainment on the frequency of eating breakfast.

Methods

The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study is a 15-year follow up study of a random sample of births in cities larger than 200,000 population. The predictor was parental education at birth. The outcome was the frequency of eating breakfast at age 15. Linear regression was used for data analysis.

Results

Maternal educational attainment at birth was positively associated with youth frequency of eating breakfast among Whites, not Blacks. We also found a significant interaction between maternal educational attainment at birth and race, suggesting that the association between maternal education and youth frequency of eating breakfast at age 15 was weaker for Black than White families.

Conclusions

Diminished returns of maternal educational attainment on healthy youth diet may contribute to the racial disparities in poor health of high SES Black families. That is, a smaller protective effect of maternal education on changing health behaviors for Black than White youth may be one of the mechanisms by which health is worse than expected in high SES Black families. The health disparities are not only due to racial differences in SES but also the diminishing returns of socioeconomic status indicators such as education for racial minorities. Research should study contextual and structural factors that reduce Black families' ability to mobilize their human capital and secure health outcomes in urban settings.

Parental Education and Spanking of American Children: Blacks' Diminished Returns

Background

Based on the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, high socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental education shows weaker protective effects against adverse experiences for Blacks than Whites. For example, Black children with highly educated parents report high levels of depression, anxiety, suicide, smoking, obesity, and chronic disease. Limited knowledge exists on MDRs of parental education on the child's exposure to spanking by the mother.

Aims

Built on the MDRs framework, we tested the hypothesis of whether the effect of parental education on the child's exposure to spanking by the mother differs in Black and White families. We hypothesized that: 1) there is an inverse association between mothers' educational attainment and child spanking, and 2) the effect of mothers' educational attainment on mothers' spanking of the child is weaker for Black than White families.

Methods

We used data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study (FFCWS), a 9-year follow up study of a random sample of births in cities larger than 200,000 population. In this analysis, 2722 Black or White families were followed. The main predictor was parental educational attainment at birth. The outcomes were exposure to spanking at ages 3, 5, and 9. Logistic regression was used for data analysis.

Results

Higher parental educational attainment at birth was inversely associated with the child's exposure to spanking by the mother among Whites, not Blacks. We also found a significant interaction between parental educational attainment at birth and race, suggesting that the associations between parental education and child exposure to spanking by the mother at ages 3, 5, and 9 were weaker for Black than White families.

Conclusions

Diminished returns of parental educational attainment in terms of reducing children's exposure to trauma and stress may be a mechanism that contributes to racial health disparities, particularly poor health of children in highly educated Black families. That is a smaller protective effect of parental education on reducing undesired exposures for Black than White children may be one of the mechanisms that may explain why children develop worse than expected physical, mental, and behavioral health in high SES Black families. Not all health disparities are due to racial differences in SES, but some of them are also secondary to the diminishing returns of socioeconomic status indicators such as parental education for racial minorities. Research should study contextual, structural, family, and behavioral factors that reduce Black families' ability to mobilize their human capital and secure health outcomes for themselves and their children.

College Graduation and Wealth Accumulation: Blacks' Diminished Returns

Background

Based on the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, indicators of high socioeconomic status (SES), such as high maternal educational attainment, show weaker protective effects on various developmental, behavioral, and health outcomes for Black than White families. As a result of these MDRs, families and individuals with high educational attainment still report high levels of depression, smoking, obesity, and chronic disease. Limited knowledge exists on MDRs of maternal education on indicators of wealth such as home ownership and home value.

Aims

Built on the MDRs framework, we tested the hypothesis of whether the effects of maternal educational attainment at birth on home ownership and home value, as proxies of wealth, vary between Black and White families. We hypothesized that: 1) high maternal education would be associated with more wealth 15 years later, and 2) compared to Whites, Blacks would be less likely to accumulate wealth (own a house) across all educational levels, given a weaker boosting effect of maternal educational attainment on wealth for Black than White families.

Methods

The Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study, is a 15-year follow up study of a random sample of births in cities larger than 200,000 population in the US. A total number of 2004 White or Black youth were included and were followed from birth to the age of 15. The predictor of interest was maternal educational attainment at birth, treated as a categorical variable (college graduation). The outcomes were home ownership and home value (worth - owed) 15 years later, as proxies of wealth. Logistic and linear regression were used for data analysis.

Results

High maternal education at birth was associated with home ownership and higher value of owned home at age 15. We also found that maternal educational attainment at birth and race interact with each other, suggesting that the effects of high maternal educational attainment at birth on home ownership/value at age 15 were weaker for Black than White families.

Conclusions

Diminished returns of maternal educational attainment at birth on wealth accumulation in Black families may be a mechanism that contributes to racial health disparities in high socioeconomic status and also poor outcomes of high SES Black families. That is, a smaller effect of maternal educational attainment on changing the real lives of Black than White youth may be one of the mechanisms by which health remains worse than expected in high SES Black families. Not all of the health, behavioral, and developmental disparities are due to the racial gap in SES but also diminishing returns of socioeconomic status indicators such as maternal educational attainment for racial minorities. Research should study how social stratification, discriminatory mortgage and banking, residential segregation, family formation, employment, and occupational prestige reduce Black families' ability to mobilize their human capital and secure tangible economic and non-economic outcomes.

African Americans' Diminished Returns of Parental Education on Adolescents' Depression and Suicide in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study

To investigate racial and ethnic differences in the protective effects of parental education and marital status against adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempts in the U.S. As proposed by the Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs), parental education generates fewer tangible outcomes for non-White compared to White families. Our existing knowledge is very limited regarding diminished returns of parental education and marital status on adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempts. To compare racial groups for the effects of parental education and marital status on adolescents' depressed mood and suicidal attempt. This cross-sectional study included 7076 non-Hispanic White or African American 8-11 years old adolescents from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variables were parental education and marital status. The main outcomes were depressed mood and suicidal attempts based on parents' reports using the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS). Age and gender were the covariates. Race was the moderator. Logistic regression was used to analyze the ABCD data. Overall, parental education was associated with lower odds of depressed mood (OR = 0.81; 95% CI = 0.67-0.99; p = 0.037) and having married parents was associated with lower odds of suicidal attempts (OR = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.28-0.91; p = 0.022). In the pooled sample, we found interaction terms between race with parental education and marital status on the outcomes, suggesting that the protective effect of having married parents against depressed mood (OR = 1.54; 95% CI = 1.00-2.37; p = 0.048) and the protective effect of having married parents against suicidal attempts (OR = 6.62; 95% CI = 2.21-19.86; p =0.001) are weaker for African Americans when compared to Whites. The protective effects of parent education and marital status against depressed mood and suicidal attempts are diminished for African American adolescents compared to White adolescents. There is a need for programs and interventions that equalize not only socioeconomic status (SES) but also the marginal returns of SES for racial minority groups. Such efforts require addressing structural and societal barriers that hinder African American families from translating their SES resources and human capital into tangible outcomes. There is a need for studies that can minimize MDRs for African American families, so that every individual and every family can benefit from their resources regardless of their skin color. To achieve such a goal, we need to help middle-class African American families secure tangible outcomes in the presence of SES resources.

Family Socioeconomic Status and Exposure to Childhood Trauma: Racial Differences

BACKGROUND

Minorities' diminished returns (MDRs) refer to weaker effects of socioeconomic status (SES) indicators such as parental educational attainment and family income in generating tangible childhood outcomes for racial and ethnic minorities compared to the majority group, a pattern prevalent in the US. Our existing knowledge is minimal, however, about diminished returns of family SES on reducing exposure to childhood trauma.

AIM

To determine if there was a difference between non-Hispanic whites (NHW) and non-Hispanic blacks (NHB) in the effect of SES on exposure to childhood trauma among children ages 8-11 years old.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, we analyzed data from 4696 NHW or NHB American 8-11-year-old children who were participants in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study. The independent variables were parental educational attainment and family income. The primary outcome was exposure to 1 or 2+ childhood traumas, measured by the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS) semi-structured interview. Polynomial regression was used for data analysis.

RESULTS

Parental education and family income had statistically significant protective (negative) effects on childhood trauma, indicating children from high income and highly educated families were exposed to a lower level of childhood trauma. However, race/ethnicity showed statistically significant interactions with parental education and family income on exposure to childhood trauma, indicating weaker protective effects of parental education and family income on reducing exposure to trauma for NHB compared to NHW children. Race-specific models showed protective effects of parental education and family income on exposure to childhood trauma for NHW but not NHB children.

CONCLUSION

The protective effects of parental education and family income against exposure to childhood trauma are systematically diminished for NHBs compared to NHWs. To minimize the racial/ethnic health gaps, diminished returns of parental education and family income should be addressed. There is a need for programs and interventions that equalize not only SES but also the marginal returns of SES for ethnic groups. Such efforts require addressing structural and societal barriers that hinder NHB families from translating their SES resources into tangible outcomes. There is a need for studies that can minimize MDRs for NHB families, such that SES can similarly secure tangible outcomes in the presence of SES resources.

Family Income and Gang Presence in the Neighborhood: Diminished Returns of Black Families

BACKGROUND

Based on the Minorities' Diminished Returns (MDRs) framework, indicators of high socioeconomic status, such as higher family income, show weaker protective effects on various developmental, behavioral, and health outcomes for Black than White families. As a result of these MDRs, Black families who access education and income still report high levels of depression, smoking, obesity, and chronic disease. Limited knowledge exists on MDRs of income on neighborhood quality.

AIMS

Built on the MDRs framework, this study tested the hypothesis of whether the effect of family income and maternal education at birth on neighborhood gang presence varies between Black and White families. The hypotheses were that: (1) higher income families would report lower gang presence in their neighborhood, and (2) compared to Whites, Blacks would show weaker protective effects of family income on gang presence in their neighborhood.

METHODS

The Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study is a 15-year follow up study of a random sample of births in cities with larger than 200,000 population. Two thousand nine hundred and nineteen White or Black families were included and were followed from birth of their child for 15 years. The predictors were family income and maternal education at birth, treated as categorical variables. The outcome was gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15. Logistic regression was used for data analysis.

RESULTS

Higher maternal education at birth was inversely associated with gang presence in the neighborhoods, while family income at birth did not show an effect on reducing gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15. Family income at birth and race interact, suggesting that the association between family income at birth and gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15 was weaker for Black than White families. Our race-stratified models also showed an inverse effect of family income at birth on gang presence in the neighborhood at age 15 in White but not Black families.

CONCLUSIONS

Diminished returns of family income at birth on neighborhood safety and social disorder may be a mechanism that contributes to racial health disparities in higher socioeconomic status and also poor outcomes for Black families across socioeconomic status (SES) levels. That is, a smaller protective effect of family income on changing the real lives of Black compared to White families may be one of the mechanisms by which health is worse than expected in Black families, across the entire SES spectrum. The health, behavioral, and developmental disparities are not only due to the racial gap in SES but also diminishing returns of socioeconomic status indicators such as family income for racial minorities. Research should study contextual and structural factors that reduce Black families' ability to mobilize their human capital and secure health outcomes in urban settings.

Parental Education on Youth Inhibitory Control in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study: Blacks' Diminished Returns

BACKGROUND

Non-Hispanic Black (NHB) youth are at a higher risk of high-risk behaviors compared to non-Hispanic White (NHW) youth. Some of this racial gap is shown to be due to weaker effects of parental educational attainment on reducing the prevalence of behavioral risk factors such as impulsivity, substance use, aggression, obesity, and poor school performance for NHBs, a pattern called Minorities' Diminished Returns. These diminishing returns may be due to lower than expected effects of parental education on inhibitory control.

AIM

We compared NHW and NHB youth for the effect of parental educational attainment on youth inhibitory control, a psychological and cognitive construct that closely predicts high-risk behaviors such as the use of drugs, alcohol, and tobacco.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional analysis that included 4188 youth from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was parental educational attainment. The main outcome was youth inhibitory control measured by the stop-signal task (SST), which was validated by parent reports on the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL).

RESULTS

In race/ethnicity-stratified models, high parental educational attainment was associated with a higher level of inhibitory control for NHB than NHW youth. In the pooled sample, race/ethnicity showed a statistically significant interaction with parental educational attainment on youth inhibitory control suggesting that high parental educational attainment has a smaller boosting effect on inhibitory control for NHB than NHW youth.

CONCLUSION

Parental educational attainment boosts inhibitory control for NHW but not NHB youth. To minimize the racial gap in youth brain development, we need to address societal barriers that diminish the returns of family economic and human resources, particularly parental educational attainment, for racial and ethnic minority youth. Social and public policies should address structural and societal barriers such as social stratification, segregation, racism, and discrimination that hinder NHB parents' abilities to effectively mobilize their human resources and secure tangible outcomes for their developing youth.

Dimensional Change Card Sorting of American Children: Marginalization-Related Diminished Returns of Age

BACKGROUND

While age is associated with an increase in cognitive flexibility and executive functioning as a result of normal development during childhood, less is known about the effect of racial variation in children's age-related cognitive development. The Marginalization-related Diminished Returns (MDRs) phenomenon suggests that, under racism, social stratification, segregation, and discrimination, individual-level economic and non-economic resources and assets show weaker effects on children's development for marginalized, racialized, and minoritized families.

AIM

We conducted this study to compare racial groups of children for age-related changes in their card sorting abilities.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 10,414 9-10-year-old American children. Data came from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study. The independent variable was age, a continuous variable measured in months. The dependent variable was dimensional change card sort (DCCS) score, which reflected cognitive flexibility, and was measured by the NIH Dimensional Change Card Sort. Ethnicity, sex, parental education, and marital status were the covariates.

RESULTS

Older age was associated with higher DCCS score, reflecting a higher card-sorting ability and cognitive flexibility. However, age showed a weaker association with DCCS for Black than for White children. This was documented by a significantly negative interaction between race and age on children's DCCS scores.

CONCLUSION

Age shows a weaker correlation with the cognitive flexibility of Black than of White children. A similar pattern can be seen when comparing low-income with high-income children. Conceptualizing race as a social factor that alters normal childhood development is a finding that is in line with MDRs. Marginalization due to social stratification and racism interfere with the normal age-related cognitive development of American children.

American Indian, Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander Children's Body Mass Index: Diminished Returns of Parental Education and Family Income

Background

Socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with several health-related outcomes, such as obesity and body mass index (BMI). However, we do not know whether SES is associated differently with children's BMI from American Indian and Alaska Native and Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander (AIAN/NHPI) families when compared to non-Hispanic White (NHW) families.

Aim

To compare AIAN/NHPI and NHW families for associations between parental education, family income, and children's BMI in the United States (U.S).

Methods

This cross-sectional investigation used the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study data. Participants (n = 8580) included 63 AIAN/NHPI and 8517 NHW children between ages 9 and 10. The independent variables were parental education and family income. The primary outcome was BMI. Race was the moderator. Age, sex, and family structure were covariates. Mixed-effects regression models were used for data analysis.

Results

In the pooled sample, higher parental education and family income were associated with lower children's BMI. We found interactions between race and parental education and family income indicating weaker associations between parental education and family income and children's BMI in AIAN/NHPI families than in NHW families.

Conclusion

The salience of parental education and family income as social determinants of children's BMI is diminished for AIAN/NHPI families than NHW families. As a result, AIAN/NHPI children with high SES remain at risk for high BMI, while high-SES NHW children show the lowest BMI. Future research should test if obesogenic environments, food options, and physical activity-friendly neighborhoods can explain higher-than-expected BMI in high-SES AIAN/NHPI children. In other terms, more research is needed to understand if residential segregation, discrimination, and historical trauma explain the observed differences in the social patterning of childhood BMI in AIAN/NHPI and NHW communities.