Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Broods: Composition, Technology and Gastronomic Applicability

Influence of Honey Bee Brood Protein on the Hydrophilic, Mechanical, and Thermal Properties of Polysaccharide Gel Films

Growing concerns over the environmental impact of plastic packaging have driven interest in sustainable alternatives, particularly biopolymer-based films. This study developed ternary-blended polysaccharide gel films composed of carboxymethyl starch (CMS), chitosan (CS), and pectin (PT), with dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose (DCMC) as a crosslinker, and investigated the effects of honey bee brood protein (BBP) (0-0.4% w/v) on their mechanical, barrier, and thermal properties. A completely randomized design (CRD) was employed to evaluate the impact of BBP concentration on film characteristics. Results demonstrated that adding 0.4% BBP enhanced water vapor barrier properties and thermal stability while reducing hydrophilicity. The optimal formulation was observed at 0.1% BBP, providing the highest tensile strength (7.73 MPa), elongation at break (32.23%), and water-absorption capacity (369.01%). The improvements in thermal stability and hydrophilicity were attributed to BBP's hydrophobic amino acids, which interacted with DCMC to form a denser polymer network, enhancing structural integrity and moisture resistance. Additionally, BBP incorporation contributed to the biodegradability of polysaccharide gel films, improving their environmental sustainability compared to conventional biopolymers. The findings suggest that BBP can serve as a functional additive in polysaccharide-based films, balancing performance and eco-friendliness for applications in biodegradable food and medical packaging.

Effects of Drone Brood Homogenate on Wound Healing: An Experimental Study on Rats

BACKGROUND

Wound healing is one of the most interesting topics in orthopaedic surgery, and there are many studies on the factors and mechanisms affecting this process.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluated the macroscopic and histopathological results of drone larvae homogenate (DLH) on wound healing in a full-thickness wound model.

METHODS

Thirty male wistar rats (6-8 weeks, 250 ± 50 g) were used. A uniform circular full-thickness wound of approximately 18.44 ± 1.45 (control), 19.02 ± 1.24 (silverdin), 19.37 ± 1.28 (DLH) mm2 was excised on the back of each rat. They were divided into control (n: 10), silverdin (n: 10) and DLH (n: 10) groups. DLH, collected from the beehive for 3-7 days in late spring and ready for use after homogenization and lyophilization. Two mL of physiological saline, silver sulfadiazine 1% and DLH were applied to the control, silverdin and DLH groups, respectively, and a thin layer that completely covered the wound, and repeated every 2 days for all groups for 14 days. The condition of the lesions was observed every 2 days and the amount of contraction and granulation tissue formed in the lesion was recorded. The lesioned areas was examined histopathologically.

RESULTS

There was no statistically significant difference in lymphocyte, fibroblast, scar thickness, polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMNL), minivascular density (CD34) and transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) among the control, silverdin and DLH groups (p = 0.771, 0.434, 0.07, 0.396). The scar density of the DLH group was found to be higher than the control and silverdin groups (p = 0.003). The average wound diameter of the control group (6.87 ± 0.93 mm2) on the 10th day was found to be higher than the silverdin (4.39 ± 1.15 mm2) and DLH groups (4.16 ± 0.55 mm2) (p = 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

DLH has a positive effect on wound healing, especially by ensuring early wound contraction and wound scar formation.

Antioxidant Activity and Chemical Alterations of Honeybee Brood Bio-Peptides Interacting with Honey Under Moist-Dried Thermal Aging

Edible insect honeybee brood and natural honey are rich in proteins and saccharides, with inherent bioactive properties such as antioxidant activity. To enhance their antioxidative potential under simple thermal conditions, this research employed spontaneous aging via a moist-dried heating process, primarily driven by the Maillard reaction. Honeybee brood bio-peptides (HBb-BPs), produced through Rhizopus oligosporus fermentation, were mixed with honey in varying ratios of 70:30, 50:50, and 30:70 (%w/w). The mixtures underwent interaction under controlled conditions (60 °C for 20 days at ~75% relative humidity). A comparative analysis was performed on the mixtures before and after the thermal interaction, focusing on chemical characterization and antioxidant activity (ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP assays). Results revealed that the post-process mixtures exhibited significantly enhanced antioxidant activity, with higher honey concentrations correlating to greater antioxidative effects. Furthermore, allulose and mannose were detected after processing, while levels of fructose, glucose, and free amino acids decreased. These changes likely indicate the formation of complex compounds, molecular rearrangements, and the production of phenolic compounds that contributed to the increased antioxidative capacity. This study highlights the pivotal role of the Maillard reaction in augmenting antioxidant activity, elucidates changes in sugar-amino acid interactions, and validates the effectiveness of the moist-dried heating process. These findings provide valuable insights for potential future applications of this simple and scalable method.

Evaluation of Prebiotic and Health-Promoting Functions of Honeybee Brood Biopeptides and Their Maillard Reaction Conjugates

This study addresses the growing interest in natural functional ingredients by evaluating the prebiotic and health-promoting functions of honeybee brood biopeptides (HBb-Bps) and their conjugates. The purpose was to investigate their antioxidant activities, enzyme inhibition properties, and effects on probiotic growth and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production. The HBb-Bps were conjugated with honey, glucose, and fructose via the Maillard reaction. Antioxidant activities were assessed using DPPH and ABTS assays. The inhibitory effects on amylase, pancreatic lipase, and the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) were measured. Probiotic growth and SCFA production were evaluated using L. plantarum TISTR846, and L. lactis TISTR1464. The HBb-Bps and their conjugates exhibited enhanced antioxidant activities post-Maillard reaction. They showed moderate enzyme inhibition, which decreased after conjugation. However, ACE inhibition increased with conjugation. The HBb-Bps significantly promoted probiotic growth and SCFA production, with further enhancement by the Maillard reaction. Overall, the HBb-Bps and their conjugates demonstrate significant prebiotic and health-promoting functions, suggesting their potential as natural ingredients in functional foods and nutraceuticals. Further research should focus on the in vivo effects and, given their solubility and stability these biopeptides could be incorporated into functional food formulations, such as health beverages, protein bars, and other fortified foods designed to deliver specific health benefits.

Utilizing Supercritical CO2 for Bee Brood Oil Extraction and Analysis of Its Chemical Properties

To obtain oil from bee brood, which was dried using a tray drying method, this study used the supercritical CO2 extraction method. Extraction occurred at temperatures between 40-60 °C and low pressures of 180-220 bar for 1.5 h, with a high pressure of 600 bar for 1 h. The study investigated both the yield and chemical properties of the extracted bee brood oils. Supercritical CO2 extraction of tray-dried bee brood at 600 bar pressure demonstrated higher oil extraction efficiency compared to lower pressures (180-220 bar). At temperatures of 40-60 °C, total phenolic compounds increased while total flavonoids decreased. The extracted oil exhibited antioxidant activity, primarily due to quercetin. Despite decreased acid, iodine, and saponification values, peroxide value slightly increased but remained below 12 meqO2/kg of oil. The make-up of the fatty acids changed. At 600 bar, palmitic and oleic acids were the most common, while myristic, linoleic, and docosadienoic acids decreased. At 600 bar, eicosadienoic acid was absent. The defatted bee brood retained significant essential and non-essential amino acids, indicating its potential for further development as a protein source.

Antioxidant Capacity, Phytochemicals, Minerals, and Chemical Pollutants in Worker Honey Bee (Apis mellifera L.) Broods from Northern Thailand: A Safe and Sustainable Food Source

Honey bee brood (HBB) (Apis mellifera L.), a traditional protein source, has been studied for its nutritional value, but bio-functional properties and safety concerns have not been verified. This study examined the Antioxidant capacity, phytochemicals, minerals, and chemical pollutants in worker broods from several apiaries in Northern Thailand. HBB samples were lyophilized to evaluate antioxidant capacity using ABTS, DPPH, and FRAP assays, tests with water, and 70% ethanol extracts. Phytochemicals were identified using LC-QTOF-MS; pollutants were analyzed chromatographically, and minerals were determined using ICP-OES. The results showed that the evaluated antioxidant capacity of the ethanol extracts included DPPH 2.04-3.37 mg/mL, ABTS 21.22-33.91 mg/mL, and FRAP 50.07-104.15 mg AAE/100 g dry weight. Water extracts had outstanding antioxidant activities except for ABTS, with DPPH 10.67-84.97 mg/mL, ABTS 9.25-13.54 mg/mL, and FRAP 57.66-177.32 mgAAE/100 g dry weight. Total phenolics and flavonoids in ethanol extracts ranged from 488.95-508.87 GAE/100 g to 4.7-12.98 mg QE/g dry weight, respectively. Thirteen phytochemicals were detected and contained adequate mineral contents in the HBBs from different locations found, which were K, Ca, Mg, and Na, and no heavy metals or pollutants exceeded safe levels. These results imply that HBB from different apiaries in Northern Thailand is a nutritious food source with considerable antioxidants and a safe and sustainable food source.

Exploring the Chemical Constituents and Nutritive Potential of Bee Drone (Apilarnil): Emphasis on Antioxidant Properties

A lesser-known bee product called drone brood homogenate (DBH, apilarnil) has recently attracted scientific interest for its chemical and biological properties. It contains pharmacologically active compounds that may have neuroprotective, antioxidant, fertility-enhancing, and antiviral effects. Unlike other bee products, the chemical composition of bee drone larva is poorly studied. This study analyzed the chemical compostion of apilarnil using several methods. These included liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and a combination of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry with solid phase micro-extraction (SPME/GC-MS). Additionally, antioxidant activity of the apilarnil was assessed using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. A chemical assessment of apilarnil showed that it has 6.3±0.00, 74.67±0.10 %, 3.65±0.32 %, 8.80±1.01 %, 13.16±0.94 %, and 8.79±0.49 % of pH, moisture, total lipids, proteins, flavonoids, and carbohydrates, respectively. LC-MS/MS analysis and molecular networking (GNPS) of apilarnil exhibited 44 compounds, including fatty acids, flavonoids, glycerophospholipids, alcohols, sugars, amino acids, and steroids. GC-MS detected 30 volatile compounds in apilarnil, mainly esters (24 %), ketones (23.84 %), ethers (15.05 %), alcohols (11.41 %), fatty acids (10.06), aldehydes (6.73 %), amines (5.46), and alkene (5.53 %). The antioxidant activity of apilarnil was measured using DPPH with an IC50 of 179.93±2.46 μg/ml.

Apilarnil ameliorates Bisphenol A-induced testicular toxicity in adult male rats via improving antioxidant potency and PCNA expression

Apilarnil, a bee-derived product originating from drone larvae, offers a range of advantageous properties for both humans and animals. It functions as an antioxidant, provides neuroprotection, boosts fertility, and has antiviral capabilities. Additionally, it is a provider of androgenic hormones. These beneficial functions are supported by its chemical composition, which comprises mineral salts, vitamins, carbs, lipids, hormones, and amino acids. The current study aimed to evaluate the ameliorative effect of apilarnil against Bisphenol A (BPA)-induced testicular toxicity in male adult rats. Forty-eight Wistar albino rats were randomly classified into six groups. The first, second, and third received olive oil, BPA at a dose of 50 mg/kg body weight (bwt), and apilarnil at a dose of 0.6 g/kg bwt, respectively. The fourth, fifth, and sixth groups received apilarnil with, before, or after BPA administration, respectively. Phytochemical analysis using included linear ion trap-ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LTQ-UPLC-MS/MS) and global natural products social molecular networking (GNPS) revealed the presence of lysine, 10-hydroxy-(E)-2-dodecenoic acid, apigenin7-glucoside, testosterone, progesterone, and campesterol. BPA administration decreased serum level of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), testosterone, glutathione (GSH) concentration, total sperm count, motility, and vitality. Additionally, BPA increased sperm abnormalities, malondialdehyde concentration (MDA), and decreased proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression. The treatment with apilarnil ameliorated BPA reproductive toxicity in rats which was indicated by increased serum testosterone levels, normalized serum levels of FSH and LH, and concentration of MDA and GSH activity. Moreover, apilarnil improved sperm count, motility, morphology, and PCNA expression. Apilarnil was found to enhance reproductive hormones, MDA levels, antioxidant activity, and PCNA expression.

Effects of the Incorporation of Male Honey Bees on Dough Properties and on Wheat Flour Bread's Quality Characteristics

Two different levels (5 and 10%) of male honey bees (drones) in powder form were incorporated into wheat flour, and their impact on dough properties and on bread-quality characteristics were investigated. The incorporation of the drone powder to the wheat flour caused a decrease in the extensibility and energy of the dough in the extensograph and an increase in the dough's maximum resistance with increasing levels of the added drone powder. The elongational viscosity values of the dough fortified with drone powder were significantly higher than those of the control wheat flour dough. The breads supplemented with 10% drone powder exhibited lower lightness (L*) values compared to the control bread. The addition of drone powder led to an increase in the total dietary fiber content and insoluble dietary fiber content in the fortified bread. Significant differences in the specific volume values were observed between the control bread and the corresponding ones with 10% drone powder. Upon storage, the moisture content of the crumb of the control bread and of the fortified breads were both significantly decreased, while the addition of the drone powder to the wheat flour bread increased the crumb hardness and gumminess but decreased the cohesiveness of the breads.