Advanced Glycation End Products and Nitrosamines in Sausages Influenced by Processing Parameters, Food Additives and Fat during Thermal Processing

Formation of advanced glycation end-products and N-nitrosamines in salami of different recipes and fermented at different stages

Most research on the formation of advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) and N-nitrosamines (NAs) in meat products has focused on high-temperature processing. The effects of low-temperature processing on AGEs and NAs formation have rarely been studied. This study investigated the effects of salt addition (0 %, 2 %, and 4 %) and lean-to-fat ratio (10:0, 8:2, and 6:4) on the formation of AGEs and NAs in Salami. We found that the salt in Salami would inhibit CEL formation. And the Lean pork Salami showed the highest Nε-carboxyethyllysine (CEL) and lowest Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML) contents. For NAs content, it was lowest in Salami with 40 % fat. Principal component analysis and correlation analysis revealed significant correlations between CEL and N-nitrosodiphenylamine (NDPhA) formation in Salami. Additionally, the production of CML was correlated with the extent of fat oxidation, while CEL formation was more strongly associated with protein-related reactions. Furthermore, NAs formation correlated with protein content and protein oxidation.

Recent Trends in Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods: Formation, Toxicity, and Innovative Strategies for Extraction, Detection, and Inhibition

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) are produced in foods during their thermal treatment through routes like the Maillard reaction. They have been linked to various health issues such as diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. There are multiple pathways through which AGEs can form in foods and the body. Therefore, this review work aims to explore multiple formation pathways of AGEs to gain insights into their generation mechanisms. Furthermore, this review work has analyzed the recent trends in the detection and inhibition of AGEs in food matrices. It can be highlighted, based on the surveyed literature, that UHPLC-Orbitrap-Q-Exactive-MS and UPLC-ESI-MS/MS can produce highly sensitive results with a low limit of detection levels for AGEs in food matrices. Moreover, various works on inhibitory agents like spices, herbs, fruits, vegetables, hydrocolloids, plasma-activated water, and probiotic bacteria were assessed for their capacity to suppress the formation of AGEs in food products and simulation models. Overall, it is essential to decrease the occurrence of AGEs in food products, and future scope might include studying the interaction of macromolecular components in food products to minimize the production of AGEs without sacrificing the organoleptic qualities of processed foods.

Dietary Restriction of Advanced Glycation End-Products (AGEs) in Patients with Diabetes: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs) are formed through non-enzymatic reactions between reducing sugars and proteins, nucleic acids or lipids (for example through hyperoxidation). In diabetes, elevated glucose levels provide more substrate for AGEs formation. AGEs can also be ingested through the diet from foods cooked at high temperatures, or containing much sugar. The present work aimed to review all published randomized controlled trials (RCT) on low-dietary AGE (L-dAGEs) interventions in patients with diabetes. Pubmed, Scopus and Cochrane databases were searched (until 29 February 2024) with appropriate keywords (inclusion criteria: RCT, patients with diabetes, age > 18 years, outcomes related to inflammation, glucose, and lipids; exclusion criteria: non-RCTs, case-series, case reports and Letter to the Editor, or animal studies). The present review was registered to the Open Science Framework (OSF). From 7091 studies, seven were ultimately included. Bias was assessed with the updated Cochrane Risk of Bias tool. A reduction in circulating AGEs was documented in 3/3 studies. No particular differences were documented in glycemic parameters after a L-dAGEs diet. Reductions in glucose levels were observed in one out of six studies (1/6), while HbA1c and HOMA did not change in any study (0/6 and 0/3, correspondingly). Lipid profile also changed in one out of four studies (1/4). More consistent results were observed for oxidative stress (beneficial effects in 3/3 studies) and inflammatory markers (beneficial effects in 4/4 studies). Other athero-protective effects, such as adiponectin increases, were reported. Limitations included the small sample size and the fact that dietary and physical activity habits were not considered in most studies. In conclusion, a L-dAGEs pattern may minimize AGEs accumulation and have beneficial effects on oxidative stress and inflammation indices, while its effects on glycemic and lipemic parameters are inconsistent and modest in patients with diabetes.

Food process contaminants: formation, occurrence, risk assessment and mitigation strategies - a review

Thermal treatment of food can lead to the formation of potentially harmful chemicals, known as process contaminants. These are adventitious contaminants that are formed in food during processing and preparation. Various food processing techniques, such as heating, drying, grilling, and fermentation, can generate hazardous chemicals such as acrylamide (AA), advanced glycation end products (AGEs), heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), furan, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), N-nitroso compounds (NOCs), monochloropropane diols (MCPD) and their esters (MCPDE) which can be detrimental to human health. Despite efforts to prevent the formation of these compounds during processing, eliminating them is often challenging due to their unknown formation mechanisms. It is critical to identify the potential harm to human health in processed food and understand the mechanisms by which harmful compounds form during processing, as prolonged exposure to these toxic compounds can lead to health problems. Various mitigation strategies, such as the use of diverse pre- and post-processing treatments, product reformulation, additives, variable process conditions, and novel integrated processing techniques, have been proposed to control these food hazards. In this review, we summarize the formation and occurrence, the potential for harm to human health produced by process contaminants in food, and potential mitigation strategies to minimize their impact.

The effects of using sheep tail fat and cooking time on carboxymethyl-lysine formation and some quality characteristics of heat-treated sucuk

The study's aim was to determine the effect of using sheep tail fat (STF) on carboxymethyl-lysine (CML) content and other properties of heat-treated sucuk (HTS), a type of semi-dry fermented sausage. Three mixtures were prepared: 100% beef fat (BF), 50% BF + 50% STF, and 100% STF. After production (fermentation, heat treatment, and drying), the samples were cooked at 180°C for 0, 1, 3, and 5 min to determine the effect of cooking time on CML, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS), total sulfhydryl, and carbonyl contents. The lowest pH value (5.50) was observed in the presence of STF. The most oleic acid (46.02%) was observed in the 100% STF group. The score of taste and general acceptability decreased with increasing STF. Using STF had no significant effect on TBARS, total sulfhydryl, carbonyl, or CML content. These parameters were affected by cooking time. The mean CML content increased from 55.77 to 72.90 μg/g after 5 min of cooking. CML correlated more strongly with TBARS than sulfhydryl or carbonyl.

The effects of advanced glycation end-products on skin and potential anti-glycation strategies

The advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) are produced through non-enzymatic glycation between reducing sugars and free amino groups, such as proteins, lipids or nucleic acids. AGEs can enter the body through daily dietary intake and can also be generated internally via normal metabolism and external stimuli. AGEs bind to cell surface receptors for AGEs, triggering oxidative stress and inflammation responses that lead to skin ageing and various diseases. Evidence shows that AGEs contribute to skin dysfunction and ageing. This review introduces the basic information, the sources, the metabolism and absorption of AGEs. We also summarise the detrimental mechanisms of AGEs to skin ageing and other chronic diseases. For the potential strategies for counteracting AGEs to skin and other organs, we summarised the pathways that could be utilised to resist glycation. Chemical and natural-derived anti-glycation approaches are overviewed. This work offers an understanding of AGEs to skin ageing and other chronic diseases and may provide perspectives for the development of anti-glycation strategies.

A Comprehensive Review of Cured Meat Products in the Irish Market: Opportunities for Reformulation and Processing

Cured meat products constitute one of the meat categories commonly consumed in Ireland and has been part of the Irish cuisine and diet for many years. Ham, gammon, and bacon are some of the products that involve curing as part of the traditional processing methods. Common among these products are high levels of salt and the addition of nitrites. These products undergo processing treatments to create variety, preserve shelf-life, and develop their unique quality and safety characteristics. However, consumers are becoming more conscious of the level of processing involved in these products, and the effects of some components and ingredients might be perceived as unhealthy. Meat product developers have been exploring ways to reduce the amount of ingredients such as salt, saturated fat, and chemical preservatives (e.g., nitrites), which are linked to health concerns. This is a challenging task as these ingredients play an important techno-functional role in the products' quality, safety, and identity. While innovative processing techniques are being introduced and progress has been made in reformulation and packaging technologies, much is still unknown, especially regarding the applicability of many of the proposed interventions to a wide range of meat products and their sustainability at the industrial scale.

Exploring the role of Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation in the advanced glycation end products of batter-coated meat products during frying

The Maillard reaction occurs during the frying of batter-coated meat products, resulting in the production of advanced glycosylation products that are harmful to human health. This study investigated the effects of frying temperature (140, 150, 160, 170 and 180 ℃) and time (80, 100, 120, 140 and 160 s) on the quality, advanced glycation end product (AGE) level and the relationship between these parameters in batter-coated meat products were investigated. The results showed that with an increase in frying temperature and time, the moisture content of the batter-coated meat products gradually decreased, the thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substance (TBARS) values and oil content increased to 0.37 and 21.7 %, respectively, and then decreased, and CML and CEL content increased to 7.30 and 4.86 mg/g, respectively. Correlation analysis showed that the moisture content and absorbance at 420 nm, as well as TBARS values, were highly correlated with the oil content in batter-coated meat products. Additionally, the absorbance at 420 nm and TBARS levels were significantly correlated with AGE levels. Moreover, the AGE content in batter-coated meat products was less variable at lower frying temperatures or shorter frying times, and the influence of temperature on AGE formation was greater than that of time. Overall, these findings may help to better control the cooking conditions of batter-coated meat products based on AGE profiles.

The comprehensive prediction of carcinogenic potency and tumorigenic dose (TD50) for two problematic N-nitrosamines in food: NMAMPA and NMAMBA using toxicology in silico methods

The identification and toxicological assessment of potential carcinogens is of paramount importance for public health and safety. This study aimed to predict the carcinogenic potency and tumorigenic dose (TD50) for two problematic N-nitrosamines (N-NAs) commonly found in food: N-2-methylpropyl-N-1-methylacetonylnitrosamine (NMAMPA, CAS: 93755-83-0) and N-3-Methylbutyl-N-1-methylacetonylnitrosamine (NMAMBA, CAS: 71016-15-4). To achieve this goal, in silico toxicology methods were employed due to their practical applications and potential in risk assessment. The justification for conducting these studies was incoherent results published by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). For this purpose, we applied various in silico tools, including qualitative methods (ToxTree, ProTox II and CarcinoPred-EL) and quantitative methods (QSAR Toolbox and LAZAR) were applied to predict the carcinogenic potency. These tools leverage computational approaches to analyze chemical structures for finding toxicophores and generating predictions, making them efficient alternatives to traditional in vivo experiments. The results obtained indicated that N-NAs are carcinogenic compounds, and quantitative data was obtained in the form of estimated doses of TD50 for the compounds tested.

Processing Stage-Induced Formation of Advanced Glycation End Products in Cooked Sausages with the Addition of Spices

This study aims to evaluate the relationship between the four processing stages of cooked sausage preparation (raw, drying, baking, and steaming) and the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), 1,2-dicarbonyl compounds, and lipid and protein oxidation in sausages with spices. Baking and steaming significantly promoted lipid and protein oxidation. The Nε-carboxymethyllysine (CML) content increased from 4.32-4.81 µg/g in raw samples to 10.68-16.20 µg/g in the steamed sausages. Nε-carboxyethyllysine (CEL) concentrations increased by approximately 1.7-3.7 times after steaming. The methylglyoxal concentration increased dramatically after baking and then rapidly decreased in the steaming stage. Chili promoted the formation of CML and CEL. The CEL concentration increased in samples containing garlic, but yellow mustard and garlic slightly reduced CML concentrations in the cooked sausages. The spices decreased the lipid and protein stability of the cooked sausages, increasing malondialdehyde and protein carbonyls. Lipid oxidation and 3-deoxyglucosone positively correlated with CML and CEL levels. Black pepper had no impact on CML when the sausages were baked but remarkably increased the content of both CML and CEL in the steaming stage. Thus, the impact of spices on sausages depends on both the specific spices used and the category of AGEs formed.

Reduction of carcinogens in fermented fish (pla-ra and pla-som) by heating

Background and Aim

The risk factors for cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) are opisthorchiasis and the intake of a combination of nitroso compounds through the consumption of traditionally fermented fish, which is very popular in areas where liver flukes are endemic. The incidence of CCA remains high because this cultural habit of rural people has been altered. Therefore, decreasing nitrate and nitrite concentrations in fermented fish are an alternative approach to reducing the risk of CCA. Thus, this study aimed to reduce nitrate and nitrite concentrations in fermented foods by heating and investigated its effect on CCA development in a hamster model.

Materials and Methods

We used Association of Official Analytical Chemists method 973.31 to measure the nitrate and nitrite concentrations in both fermented fish (pla-ra [PR]) and pickled fish (pla-som [PS]) before and after boiling for 5 and 30 min, respectively. The same samples were fed to Opisthorchis viverrini (OV)-infected or -uninfected hamsters for 3 months. Thereafter, the hamsters' liver and blood were collected for analysis.

Results

The levels of nitrates and nitrites in PS and PR significantly decreased following boiling for 5 and 30 min. The OV-PR and OV-PS groups showed dramatically increased numbers of inflammatory cells, fibrosis surrounding the bile duct, and focal fibrotic areas. However, after boiling the fermented dishes for 5 and 30 min, the extent of inflammatory cell infiltration and intensity of fibrosis in these groups were decreased.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that boiling reduces nitrate and nitrite toxicity in fermented dishes, as evidenced by reduced hepatic inflammation. However, regardless of heating, kidney tissues are adversely affected when fermented meals are consumed daily.

Advanced Glycation End Products: A Comprehensive Review of Their Detection and Occurrence in Food

The Maillard reaction (MR) is a complicated chemical process that has been extensively studied. Harmful chemicals known as advanced glycation end products (AGEs), with complex structures and stable chemical characteristics, are created during the final stage of the MR. AGEs can be formed both during the thermal processing of food and in the human body. The number of AGEs formed in food is much higher compared to endogenous AGEs. A direct connection exists between human health and the build-up of AGEs in the body, which can result in diseases. Therefore, it is essential to understand the content of AGEs in the food we consume. The detection methods of AGEs in food are expounded upon in this review, and the advantages, disadvantages, and application fields of these detection methods are discussed in depth. Additionally, the production of AGEs in food, their content in typical foods, and the mechanisms influencing their formation are summarized. Since AGEs are closely related to the food industry and human health, it is hoped that this review will further the detection of AGEs in food so that their content can be evaluated more conveniently and accurately.

Quantitation of α-Dicarbonyls, Lysine- and Arginine-Derived Advanced Glycation End Products, in Commercial Canned Meat and Seafood Products

Commercial sterilization is a thermal processing method commonly used in low-acid canned food products. Meanwhile, heat treatment can significantly promote advanced glycation end product (AGE) formation in foodstuffs. In this research, the validated analytical methods have been developed to quantitate both lysine- and arginine-derived AGEs and their precursors, α-dicarbonyls, in various types of commercial canned meat and seafood products. Methylglyoxal-hydroimidazolone 1 was the most abundant AGEs found in the canned food products, followed by Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine, Nε-(carboxymethyl)lysine, and glyoxal-hydroimidazolone 1. Correlation analysis revealed that methylglyoxal and glyoxal were only positively associated with the corresponding arginine-derived AGEs, while their correlations with the corresponding lysine-derived AGEs were not significant. Importantly, we demonstrated for the first time that total sugar and carbohydrate contents might serve as the potential markers for the prediction of total AGEs in canned meats and seafoods. Altogether, this study provided a more complete view of AGEs' occurrence in commercial canned food products.