Fusarium Mycotoxins in Two Hulless Oat and Barley Cultivars Used for Food Purposes

A Review of the Mycotoxin Family of Fumonisins, Their Biosynthesis, Metabolism, Methods of Detection and Effects on Humans and Animals

Fumonisins, a class of mycotoxins predominantly produced by Fusarium species, represent a major threat to food safety and public health due to their widespread occurrence in staple crops including peanuts, wine, rice, sorghum, and mainly in maize and maize-based food and feed products. Although fumonisins occur in different groups, the fumonisin B series, particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2), are the most prevalent and toxic in this group of mycotoxins and are of public health significance due to the many debilitating human and animal diseases and mycotoxicosis they cause and their classification as by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as a class 2B carcinogen (probable human carcinogen). This has made them one of the most regulated mycotoxins, with stringent regulatory limits on their levels in food and feeds destined for human and animal consumption, especially maize and maize-based products. Numerous countries have regulations on levels of fumonisins in foods and feeds that are intended to protect human and animal health. However, there are still gaps in knowledge, especially with regards to the molecular mechanisms underlying fumonisin-induced toxicity and their full impact on human health. Detection of fumonisins has been advanced through various methods, with immunological approaches such as Enzyme-Linked Immuno-Sorbent Assay (ELISA) and lateral flow immunoassays being widely used for their simplicity and adaptability. However, these methods face challenges such as cross-reactivity and matrix interference, necessitating the need for continued development of more sensitive and specific detection techniques. Chromatographic methods, including HPLC-FLD, are also employed in fumonisin analysis but require meticulous sample preparation and derivitization due to the low UV absorbance of fumonisins. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the fumonisin family, focusing on their biosynthesis, occurrence, toxicological effects, and levels of contamination found in foods and the factors affecting their presence. It also critically evaluates the current methods for fumonisin detection and quantification, including chromatographic techniques and immunological approaches such as ELISA and lateral flow immunoassays, highlighting the challenges associated with fumonisin detection in complex food matrices and emphasizing the need for more sensitive, rapid, and cost-effective detection methods.

Aggressiveness and mycotoxin profile of Fusarium avenaceum isolates causing Fusarium seedling blight and Fusarium head blight in UK malting barley

INTRODUCTION

Fusarium avenaceum causing Fusarium seedling blight (FSB) and Fusarium head blight (FHB) on barley is associated with economic losses of crop yield and quality, and the accumulation of mycotoxins including the enniatins (ENNs) A, A1, B and B1. Although F. avenaceum is the main producer of ENNs, studies on the ability of isolates to cause severe Fusarium diseases or produce mycotoxins in barley are limited.

METHODS

In this work, we investigated the aggressiveness of nine isolates of F. avenaceum to two cultivars of malting barley, Moonshine and Quench, and defined their ENN mycotoxin profiles in in vitro and in planta experiments. We assessed and compared the severity of FSB and FHB caused by these isolates to disease severity by F. graminearum, F. tricinctum and F. poae. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and Liquid Chromatography Tandem Mass Spectrometry assays were used to quantify pathogen DNA and mycotoxin accumulation, respectively, in barley heads.

RESULTS

Isolates of F. avenaceum were equally aggressive to barley stems and heads and caused the most severe FSB symptoms resulting in up to 55% reductions of stem and root length. Fusarium graminearum caused the most severe FHB disease, followed by the isolates of F. avenaceum with the most aggressive F. avenaceum isolates capable of causing similar bleaching of barley heads as F. avenaceum. Fusarium avenaceum isolates produced ENN B as the predominant mycotoxin, followed by ENN B1 and A1 in vitro. However, only the most aggressive isolates produced ENN A1 in planta and none produced ENN A or beauvericin (BEA) either in planta or in vitro.

DISCUSSION

The capacity of F. avenaceum isolates to produce ENNs was related to the accumulation of pathogen DNA in barley heads, whilst FHB severity was related to the synthesis and accumulation of ENN A1 in planta. Cv. Moonshine was significantly more resistant than Quench to FSB or FHB, caused by any Fusarium isolate, and to the accumulation of pathogen DNA, ENNs or BEA. In conclusion, aggressive F. avenaceum isolates are potent ENN producers causing severe FSB and FHB with ENN A1 requiring further investigation as potential virulence factor for F. avenaceum in cereals.

Discrimination of Deoxynivalenol Levels of Barley Kernels Using Hyperspectral Imaging in Tandem with Optimized Convolutional Neural Network

Deoxynivalenol (DON) in raw and processed grain poses significant risks to human and animal health. In this study, the feasibility of classifying DON levels in different genetic lines of barley kernels was evaluated using hyperspectral imaging (HSI) (382-1030 nm) in tandem with an optimized convolutional neural network (CNN). Machine learning methods including logistic regression, support vector machine, stochastic gradient descent, K nearest neighbors, random forest, and CNN were respectively used to develop the classification models. Spectral preprocessing methods including wavelet transform and max-min normalization helped to enhance the performance of different models. A simplified CNN model showed better performance than other machine learning models. Competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS) in combination with successive projections algorithm (SPA) was applied to select the best set of characteristic wavelengths. Based on seven wavelengths selected, the optimized CARS-SPA-CNN model distinguished barley grains with low levels of DON (<5 mg/kg) from those with higher levels (5 mg/kg < DON ≤ 14 mg/kg) with an accuracy of 89.41%. The lower levels of DON class I (0.19 mg/kg ≤ DON ≤ 1.25 mg/kg) and class II (1.25 mg/kg < DON ≤ 5 mg/kg) were successfully distinguished based on the optimized CNN model, yielding a precision of 89.81%. The results suggest that HSI in tandem with CNN has great potential for discrimination of DON levels of barley kernels.

Naked barley: taxonomy, breeding, and prospects of utilization

This review surveys the current state of taxonomy, origin, and utilization prospects for naked barley. The cultivated barley Hordeum vulgare L. incorporates the covered and naked barley groups. Naked barleys are divided into six-row naked barley (convar. сoeleste (L.) A. Trof.) and two-row naked barley (convar. nudum (L.) A. Trof.). The groups include botanical varieties differing in the structural features of spikes, awns, floret and spikelet glumes, and the color of kernels. The centers of morphogenesis for naked barley are scrutinized employing archeological and paleoethnobotanical data, and the diversity of its forms. Hypotheses on the centers of its origin are discussed using DNA marker data. The main areas of its cultivation are shown, along with possible reasons for such a predominating or exclusive distribution of naked barley in highland areas. Inheritance of nakedness and mechanisms of its manifestation are considered in the context of new data in genetics. The biochemical composition of barley grain in protein, some essential and nonessential amino acids, β-glucans, vitamins, and antioxidants is described. Naked barley is shown to be a valuable source of unique combinations of soluble and insoluble dietary fibers and polysaccharides. The parameters limiting wider distribution of naked barley over the world are emphasized, and breeding efforts that could mitigate them are proposed. Pathogen-resistant naked barley accessions are identified to serve as promising sources for increasing grain yield and quality. Main stages and trends of naked barley breeding are considered and the importance of the VIR global germplasm collection as the richest repository of genetic material for the development of breeding is shown.

Searching for the Fusarium spp. Which Are Responsible for Trichothecene Contamination in Oats Using Metataxonomy to Compare the Distribution of Toxigenic Species in Fields from Spain and the UK

The contamination of oats with Fusarium toxins poses a high risk for food safety. Among them, trichothecenes are the most frequently reported in European oats, especially in northern countries. The environmental conditions related to the climate change scenario might favour a distribution shift in Fusarium species and the presence of these toxins in Southern European countries. In this paper, we present an ambitious work to determine the species responsible for trichothecene contamination in Spanish oats and to compare the results in the United Kingdom (UK) using a metataxonomic approach applied to both oat grains and soil samples collected from both countries. Regarding T-2 and HT-2 toxin producers, F. langsethiae was detected in 38% and 25% of the oat samples from the UK and Spain, respectively, and to the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of the detection of this fungus in oats from Spain. The relevant type B trichothecene producer, F. poae, was the most frequently detected Fusarium species in oats from both origins. Other important trichothecene producers, such as the Fusarium tricinctum species complex or Fusarium cerealis, were also frequently detected in oat fields. Many Fusarium toxins, including T-2 and HT-2 toxins, deoxynivalenol, or nivalenol, were detected in oat samples. The results obtained in this work revealed a clear change in the distribution of trichothecene producers and the necessity to establish the potential of these species to colonize oats and their ability to produce mycotoxins.

Implications of Crop Rotation and Fungicide on Fusarium and Mycotoxin Spectra in Manitoba Barley, 2017–2019

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is one of the most important diseases of barley in Manitoba province (western Canada), and other major barley producing regions of the world. Little is known about the Fusarium species and mycotoxin spectra associated with FHB of barley in Manitoba. Hence, barley grain samples were collected from 149 commercial fields from 2017 to 2019, along with information on respective cropping history, and analyzed with respect to Fusarium species spectra, abundance, chemotype composition, and mycotoxin profiles. Fusarium poae was the predominant Fusarium species associated with FHB of barley in Manitoba, followed by F. graminearum, and F. sporotrichioides; F. equiseti and F. avenaceum were also detected but at low levels. F. poae strains with the nivalenol (NIV) chemotype and F. graminearum strains with 3-acetyl deoxynivalenol (3-ADON) and 15-acetyl deoxynivalenol (15-ADON) chemotypes were commonly detected in the barley grain samples. Nivalenol (597.7, 219.1, and 412.4 µg kg⁻¹) and deoxynivalenol (DON) (264.7, 56.7, and 65.3 µg kg⁻¹) were the two most prevalent mycotoxins contaminating Manitoba barley in 2017, 2018 and 2019, respectively. A substantially higher DON content was detected in grain samples from barley fields with cereals as a preceding crop compared to canola and flax. Furthermore, F. poae proved less sensitive to four triazole fungicides (metconazole, prothioconazole+tebuconazole, tebuconazole, and prothioconazole) than F. graminearum. Findings from this research will assist barley producers with improved understanding of FHB threat levels and optimizing practices for the best management of FHB in barley.

Relevant Fusarium Mycotoxins in Malt and Beer

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites of high concern in the food and feed industry. Their presence in many cereal-based products has been numerously reported. Beer is the most consumed alcoholic beverage worldwide, and Fusarium mycotoxins originating from the malted and unmalted cereals might reach the final product. This review aims to describe the possible Fusarium fungi that could infect the cereals used in beer production, the transfer of mycotoxins throughout malting and brewing as well as an insight into the incidence of mycotoxins in the craft beer segment of the industry. Studies show that germination is the malting step that can lead to a significant increase in the level of all Fusarium mycotoxins. The first step of mashing (45 °C) has been proved to possess the most significant impact in the transfer of hydrophilic toxins from the grist into the wort. However, during fermentation, a slight reduction of deoxynivalenol, and especially of zearalenone, is achieved. This review also highlights the limited research available on craft beer and the occurrence of mycotoxins in these products.

Survey of Freshly Harvested Oat Grains from Southern Brazil Reveals High Incidence of Type B Trichothecenes and Associated Fusarium Species

The current study investigated the fungal diversity in freshly harvested oat samples from the two largest production regions in Brazil, Paraná (PR) and Rio Grande do Sul (RS), focusing primarily on the Fusarium genus and the presence of type B trichothecenes. The majority of the isolates belonged to the Fusarium sambucinum species complex, and were identified as F. graminearum sensu stricto (s.s.), F. meridionale, and F. poae. In the RS region, F. poae was the most frequent fungus, while F. graminearum s.s. was the most frequent in the PR region. The F. graminearum s.s. isolates were 15-ADON genotype, while F. meridionale and F. poae were NIV genotype. Mycotoxin analysis revealed that 92% and 100% of the samples from PR and RS were contaminated with type B trichothecenes, respectively. Oat grains from PR were predominantly contaminated with DON, whereas NIV was predominant in oats from RS. Twenty-four percent of the samples were contaminated with DON at levels higher than Brazilian regulations. Co-contamination of DON, its derivatives, and NIV was observed in 84% and 57.7% of the samples from PR and RS, respectively. The results provide new information on Fusarium contamination in Brazilian oats, highlighting the importance of further studies on mycotoxins.

Potential Health Risk Associated with Mycotoxins in Oat Grains Consumed in Spain

Spain is a relevant producer of oats (Avena sativa), but to date there has been no study on the occurrence/co-occurrence of mycotoxins in oats marketed in Spain. The present study is addressed to overcome this lack of knowledge. One hundred oat kernel samples were acquired across different Spanish geographic regions during the years 2015-2019 and analyzed for mycotoxin content using an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-ESI-MS/MS) method and matrix-matched calibration. The focus was on the regulated mycotoxins although other relevant mycotoxins were considered. The percentage of incidence (levels ≥ limit of detection), mean and range (ng/g) of mycotoxins were as follows: zearalenone (66%, mean 39.1, range 28.1-153), HT-2 toxin (47%, mean 37.1, range 4.98-439), deoxynivalenol, (34%, mean 81.4, range 19.1-736), fumonisin B1 (29%, mean 157.5, range 63.2-217.4), and T-2 toxin, (24%, mean 49.9, range 12.3-321). Fumonisin B2, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, aflatoxins B1, B2, and G2, and ochratoxin A were also detected at low levels, but aflatoxin G1 was not. The maximum limits established by the European Commission for unprocessed oats were not exceeded, except for zearalenone (in one sample), and the sum of aflatoxins (in two samples). Mycotoxin co-occurrence at quantifiable levels in the same sample (two to five combinations) was found in 31% of samples. The most common mixtures were those of HT-2 + T-2 toxins alone or together with deoxynivalenol and/or zearalenone.

Wheat, Barley, and Oat Breeding for Health Benefit Components in Grain

Cereal grains provide half of the calories consumed by humans. In addition, they contain important compounds beneficial for health. During the last years, a broad spectrum of new cereal grain-derived products for dietary purposes emerged on the global food market. Special breeding programs aimed at cultivars utilizable for these new products have been launched for both the main sources of staple foods (such as rice, wheat, and maize) and other cereal crops (oat, barley, sorghum, millet, etc.). The breeding paradigm has been switched from traditional grain quality indicators (for example, high breadmaking quality and protein content for common wheat or content of protein, lysine, and starch for barley and oat) to more specialized ones (high content of bioactive compounds, vitamins, dietary fibers, and oils, etc.). To enrich cereal grain with functional components while growing plants in contrast to the post-harvesting improvement of staple foods with natural and synthetic additives, the new breeding programs need a source of genes for the improvement of the content of health benefit components in grain. The current review aims to consider current trends and achievements in wheat, barley, and oat breeding for health-benefiting components. The sources of these valuable genes are plant genetic resources deposited in genebanks: landraces, rare crop species, or even wild relatives of cultivated plants. Traditional plant breeding approaches supplemented with marker-assisted selection and genetic editing, as well as high-throughput chemotyping techniques, are exploited to speed up the breeding for the desired genotуpes. Biochemical and genetic bases for the enrichment of the grain of modern cereal crop cultivars with micronutrients, oils, phenolics, and other compounds are discussed, and certain cases of contributions to special health-improving diets are summarized. Correlations between the content of certain bioactive compounds and the resistance to diseases or tolerance to certain abiotic stressors suggest that breeding programs aimed at raising the levels of health-benefiting components in cereal grain might at the same time match the task of developing cultivars adapted to unfavorable environmental conditions.

Beauvericin and Enniatins: In Vitro Intestinal Effects

Food and feed contamination by emerging mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins is a worldwide health problem and a matter of great concern nowadays, and data on their toxicological behavior are still scarce. As ingestion is the major route of exposure to mycotoxins in food and feed, the gastrointestinal tract represents the first barrier encountered by these natural contaminants and the first structure that could be affected by their potential detrimental effects. In order to perform a complete and reliable toxicological evaluation, this fundamental site cannot be disregarded. Several in vitro intestinal models able to recreate the different traits of the intestinal environment have been applied to investigate the various aspects related to the intestinal toxicity of emerging mycotoxins. This review aims to depict an overall and comprehensive representation of the in vitro intestinal effects of beauvericin and enniatins in humans from a species-specific perspective. Moreover, information on the occurrence in food and feed and notions on the regulatory aspects will be provided.