Illegal Dumping of Toxic Waste and Its Effect on Human Health in Campania, Italy

Assessing and predicting the illegal dumping risks in relation to road characteristics

Using historical data to assess illegal dumping risks has significant potential to enhance the effectiveness of waste management in low-population density counties where the ability to patrol and regulate illegal dumping is limited. Using big data and geographical analysis to identify high-risk areas plays an important role in improving the effectiveness of supervision related to illegal dumping. However, current methods for classifying risk areas have limited accuracy. Taking an area in South Australia as an example, this study aims to improve the accuracy of classifying risk areas by using geo-information technology and machine learning methods. The results show that combining illegal dumping locations with road characteristics allows the high-risk areas to be refined to road sections. Compared with identifying the whole road or area as a high-risk spot, this result could be beneficial for monitoring illegal dumping in real life. Moreover, this model allows the analysis of factors that affect illegal dumping locations. Results show that the influencing factors for different risk levels of illegal dumping vary significantly. The model developed in this research can effectively distinguish risk levels according to these factors, and the model classification accuracy can reach 85%. In addition, there are priorities amongst these factors. This finding could help environmental authorities to allocate equipment and personnel with consideration of varying level of importance of those factors. This study has both technical contributions to identify high risk areas of illegal dumping, and theoretical implications for its management.

Occupational Risk Assessment in Landfills: Research Outcomes from Italy

Industrial production has brought increased wellbeing in the last years, but the amount of solid waste has undoubtedly increased. Thus, open dumpsites and landfills have been created throughout the world, with serious impacts on the environment and public health. In such a context, occupational health and safety (OHS) issues related to workers that have to deal with landfill characterization or management have not been considered sufficiently. To reduce such a research gap, in 2019 a research project started in Italy on OHS risk assessment in landfills. In fact, in such facilities, workers can be subjected to direct contact with the polluted environment and might not be completely aware of the entity and type of pollution (e.g., in open dumpsites). Starting with the analysis of INAIL data on accidents at work which occurred in Italy during the period 2008–2019, a specific risk analysis was carried out with the goal of defining risk determinants and profiles by means of K-means cluster analysis. Such an analysis allowed us to recognize the use of work equipment and the work environment as the main determinants of the accidents on the one hand, and the “driver of the excavator” as the most risky activity on the other. The achieved results take a step forward towards the characterization of occupational health and safety issues in landfills. Accordingly, the research outcomes represent a basis on which to address further research work in this field.

Serum levels of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans in a sample of Lebanese pregnant women: The role of dietary, anthropometric, and environmental factors

Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) are unintentionally produced, toxic environmental chemicals that persist for long years and bioaccumulate along the food chain, contaminating humans through diet. A particularly critical population subgroup is pregnant women given the adverse health effects on fetuses and newborns. Several anthropogenic sources of exposure to PCDD/Fs exist in Lebanon. Therefore, the aim of the present cross-sectional study is to measure the levels of PCDD/Fs in a sample of pregnant women in Lebanon and to explore potential associated factors. In this study, we measured serum concentrations of seven dioxins and ten furans, among 423 pregnant women recruited at delivery, using gas chromatography MS/MS. Among 269 participants, maternal sociodemographic information was collected including vicinity to landfills, incineration, pesticide use, industrial activity, and smoking. Anthropometric data were registered regarding pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI), pre-pregnancy weight loss from restrictive diet, and gestational weight gain. Intake of major food groups generally related to PCDD/Fs was reported (fish, red meat, poultry, and dairy). Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed to identify associations. PCDD/Fs were detected in 0 to 56.1% of the sample. Geometric mean concentrations were 75.5 (2.35) pg/g lipid and 2.25 (1.39) TEQ₂₀₀₅ pg/g lipid for total dioxins, and 2.66 (1.76) pg/g lipid and 0.34 (1.78) TEQ₂₀₀₅ pg/g lipid for total furans. Levels were relatively lower than levels previously observed in France, Germany, Mexico, Ghana, and Japan. Red meat consumption was the most consistently associated factor with a 2.38-2.57 fold increase in PCDD/F levels. Pre-pregnancy weight loss showed inverse associations with PCDD/F congeners. Vicinity to illegal incineration was also associated with a 2.32-2.43 fold increase in PCDD/F levels. In conclusion, results showed the importance of dietary, anthropometric, and environmental factors in the present sample's exposure to PCDD/Fs, in a region that contains anthropogenic sources of contamination.

The 'land of fires': epidemiological research and public health policy during the waste crisis in Campania, Italy

The region of Campania, South Italy rose to prominence in the mid-2000s due to the illegal disposal of waste by the Camorra during the local waste management crisis. Several lines of evidence have identified a link between exposure to toxic waste and adverse health outcomes in the local populations. Critically, studies since 2017 have strongly suggested that this link is causal in nature. The uncertainty of evidence polarised the Italian epidemiological community and partly undermined the precautionary principle in public health policy, leading to years of delay in the deployment of appropriate interventions. The crisis also sparked concerns about pollution of soil, water, and agricultural products. The contrast between political responses and protests from local communities shows analogies with environmental emergencies of a larger scale. Beyond law enforcement actions to prosecute illegal waste disposal activity, future mitigation of risks for affected populations will require coordinated efforts in environmental policy (land reclamation, improved waste management) and public health (i.e. extensive epidemiological surveillance, screening and prevention programs). By summarising evidence over the last two decades, this review aims to construct a cohesive interdisciplinary narrative of the events in the Campanian waste crisis.

An overview of the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling and open dumping

Landfilling is one of the most common waste management methods employed in all countries alike, irrespective of their developmental status. The most commonly used types of landfills are (a) municipal solid waste landfill, (b) industrial waste landfill, and (c) hazardous waste landfill. There is, also, an emerging landfill type called "green waste landfill" that is, occasionally, being used. Most landfills, including those discussed in this review article, are controlled and engineered establishments, wherein the waste ought to abide with certain regulations regarding their quality and quantity. However, illegal and uncontrolled "landfills" (mostly known as open dumpsites) are, unfortunately, prevalent in many developing countries. Due to the widespread use of landfilling, even as of today, it is imperative to examine any environmental- and/or health-related issues that have emerged. The present study seeks to determine the environmental pollution and health effects associated with waste landfilling by adopting a desk review design. It is revealed that landfilling is associated with various environmental pollution problems, namely, (a) underground water pollution due to the leaching of organic, inorganic, and various other substances of concern (SoC) contained in the waste, (b) air pollution due to suspension of particles, (c) odor pollution from the deposition of municipal solid waste (MSW), and (d) even marine pollution from any potential run-offs. Furthermore, health impacts may occur through the pollution of the underground water and the emissions of gases, leading to carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of the exposed population living in their vicinity.

A novel human biomonitoring study by semiconductor gas sensors in Exposomics: investigation of health risk in contaminated sites

Two areas in central-southern Italy Land of Fires in Campania and Valley of Sacco river in Lazio are known to be contaminated sites, the first due to illegal fly-tipping and toxic fires, and the second due to an intensive industrial exploitation done by no-scruple companies and crooked public administration offices with dramatic consequences for environment and resident people. The work is intended to contribute to Human BioMonitoring (HBM) studies conducted in these areas on healthy young male population by a semiconductor gas sensor array trained by SPME-GC/MS. Human semen, blood and urine were investigated. The fingerprinting of the Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) by a gas sensors system allowed to discriminate the different contamination of the two areas and was able to predict the chemical concentration of several VOCs identified by GC/MS.

First Attempt to Couple Proteomics with the AhR Reporter Gene Bioassay in Soil Pollution Monitoring and Assessment

A topsoil sample obtained from a highly industrialized area (Taranto, Italy) was tested on the DR-CALUX^® cell line and the exposed cells processed with proteomic and bioinformatics analyses. The presence of polyhalogenated compounds in the topsoil extracts was confirmed by GC-MS/MS analysis. Proteomic analysis of the cells exposed to the topsoil extracts identified 43 differential proteins. Enrichment analysis highlighted biological processes, such as the cellular response to a chemical stimulus, stress, and inorganic substances; regulation of translation; regulation of apoptotic process; and the response to organonitrogen compounds in light of particular drugs and compounds, extrapolated by bioinformatics all linked to the identified protein modifications. Our results confirm and reflect the complex epidemiological situation occurring among Taranto inhabitants and underline the need to further investigate the presence and sources of inferred chemicals in soils. The combination of bioassays and proteomics reveals a more complex scenario of chemicals able to affect cellular pathways and leading to toxicities rather than those identified by only bioassays and related chemical analysis. This combined approach turns out to be a promising tool for soil risk assessment and deserves further investigation and developments for soil monitoring and risk assessment.

Prediction and Remediation of Groundwater Pollution in a Dynamic and Complex Hydrologic Environment of an Illegal Waste Dumping Site

The characteristics of groundwater pollution caused by illegal waste dumping and methods for predicting and remediating it are still poorly understood. Serious 1,4-dioxane groundwater pollution—which has multiple sources—has been occurring at an illegal waste dumping site in the Tohoku region of Japan. So far, anti-pollution countermeasures have been taken including the installation of an impermeable wall and the excavation of soils and waste as well as the monitoring of contamination concentrations. The objective of this numerical study was to clarify the possibility of predicting pollutant transport in such dynamic and complex hydrologic environments, and to investigate the characteristics of pollutant transport under both naturally occurring and artificially induced groundwater flow (i.e., pumping for remediation). We first tried to reproduce the changes in 1,4-dioxane concentrations in groundwater observed in monitoring wells using a quasi-3D flow and transport simulation considering the multiple sources and spatiotemporal changes in hydrologic conditions. Consequently, we were able to reproduce the long-term trends of concentration changes in each monitoring well. With the predicted pollutant distribution, we conducted simulations for remediation such as pollutant removal using pumping wells. The results of the prediction and remediation simulations revealed the highly complex nature of 1,4-dioxane transport in the dumping site under both naturally occurring and artificially induced groundwater flows. The present study suggests possibilities for the prediction and remediation of pollution at illegal waste dumping sites, but further extensive studies are encouraged for better prediction and remediation.

Campania and cancer mortality: An inseparable pair? The role of environmental quality and socio-economic deprivation

The region of Campania in Southern Italy features high levels of socio-economic deprivation and low levels of environmental quality. A vast strand of the scientific literature has tried to verify whether poor environmental quality and widespread socio-economic deprivation might explain the high cancer mortality rates (CMRs) observed, especially in the municipalities - infamously labelled as the 'Land of Fires' - that were hit most severely by the crisis. While some studies managed to identify links between these two confounding factors and cancer mortality, the evidence is overall mixed. Interesting information may be drawn from the observation of municipal data: in spite of previous claims, some municipalities featuring high environmental quality and low socio-economic deprivation also display high CMRs, while other Campanian municipalities facing disastrous environmental and socio-economic conditions are characterised by low CMRs. These figures, in contrast to common sentiment and previous studies, need to be investigated thoroughly in order to assess the exact role of the confounding factors. In this work, we aim to identify the municipalities where confounding factors act as driving forces in the determination of high CMRs through an original multi-step analysis based on frequentist and Bayesian analysis. Pinpointing these municipalities could allow policymakers to design targeted and effective policy measures aimed at reducing cancer mortality.

The dynamics of indiscriminate/ illegal dumping of waste in Fisantekraal, Cape Town, South Africa

Indiscriminate dumping may be considered a 'wicked problem', as it is regarded as a complex, intractable, open-ended problem and it includes rights-based and justice issues. An understanding of the dynamics of indiscriminate dumping may assist with improving the management of indiscriminate dumping. The results show that indiscriminate dumping in Fisantekraal is a serious threat. From the first round of data collection to the last, no dumpsite disappeared despite the efforts of the community to clean up each month. Rather, the formation of new dumpsites and the extension of a few existing ones were evident. The morphology composition of the waste suggests that the main dumpers are the households and spaza shop owners. Conversations and collaboration between the authorities and community are encouraged in order to explore solutions to indiscriminate dumping.

Could Kallikrein-Related Serine Peptidase 3 Be an Early Biomarker of Environmental Exposure in Young Women?

Bisphenols and phthalates affect androgen receptor-mediated signaling that directly regulates Kallikrein-Related serine Peptidase 3 (KLK3) secretion, indicating that environmental factors may play a role in KLK3 secretion. With the aim of obtaining preliminary data on whether KLK3 could serve as an early marker of environmental pollution effects, in 61 and 58 healthy women living in a high environmental impact (HEI) and low environmental impact (LEI) area, respectively, serum KLK3 levels at different phases of menstrual cycle were measured. KLK3 values resulted in always being higher in the HEI group with respect to the LEI group. These differences were particularly relevant in the ovulatory phase (cycle day 12°–13°) of the menstrual cycle. The differences in KLK3 values during the three phases of the menstrual cycle were significant in the LEI group differently from the HEI group. In addition, higher progesterone levels were observed in the LEI group with respect to the HEI group in the luteal phase, indicating an opposite trend of KLK3 and progesterone in this phase of the menstrual cycle. Although changes in KLK3 could also depend on other factors, these preliminary data could be an early indication of an expanding study of the role of biomarkers in assessing early environmental effects for female reproductive health.

Status quo of illegal dumping research: Way forward

Due to the rapid social and economic development, the past decades have witnessed the improvement of human being's quality of life and the speedy development of the construction industry. Meanwhile, the illegal dumping of solid waste has presented a significant issue. By using the method of systematic review, this study critically examined the literature related to illegal dumping that were published since 1990, and analyzed the current status and future trends of related research. Results show that the current studies on illegal dumping mainly focus on four perspectives: environmental science and toxicology, economics, management, and the use of emerging technologies. This critical review revealed that although the issue of illegal dumping has been widely recognized in recent years, some questions remain unanswered. Therefore, a future research agenda is proposed. These include: (1) Identifying the migration of pollutants in the food chain during the illegal dumping; (2) Implementing targeted treatment of illegal dumping pollutants; (3) Improving the stakeholder decision analysis model; (4) Expanding the scope of research on stakeholders of illegal dumping; (5) Formulating an unified evaluation standard for the related costs of illegal dumping; (6) Strengthening the evaluation of the interaction effects of influencing factors; (7) Comparing the effects of different types of factors; (8) the exploration of other influencing factors; (9) Analyzing illegal dumping by combining big data with the amount of solid waste; (10) Combining with monitoring to analyze the illegal dumping of household waste.

Development of a municipality index of environmental pressure in Campania, Italy

The Experimental Zooprophylactic Institute of Southern Italy (Istitituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, IZSM) is a public health institution operating within the Italian National Health Service. Over the past 5 years [IZSM] has promoted several research studies and interventions in an effort to tackle the ‘Land of Fires’ phenomenon, caused by the continued trafficking and uncontrolled incineration of waste that has affected some areas of Campania for decades. In this article, a mathematical model that generates a municipality index of environmental pressure is presented. The model was developed by a multidisciplinary team led by an environmental engineer and included researchers in the fields of veterinary and human medicine, biology and computer science. This model may serve as a geostratification tool useful for the design of human biomonitoring studies, although it may also be employed for strategic planning of remediation programs and public health interventions.

The complex environmental scenario of the ‘Land of Fires’ phenomenon is caused by the continued trafficking and uncontrolled incineration of waste, and has affected some areas of Campania in Italy for decades. In this article a mathematical model that generates a municipality index of environmental pressure is presented. This index may be used for the design of biomonitoring studies as well as for planning of remediation interventions.

Molecular Alterations in Spermatozoa of a Family Case Living in the Land of Fires. A First Look at Possible Transgenerational Effects of Pollutants

In our previous work, we reported alterations in protamines/histones ratio, in DNA binding of these proteins and their involvement in DNA oxidative damage in 84% of the young men living in the Land of Fires. In the present work, we extended our findings, evaluating any alterations in spermatozoa of a family case, a father and son, living in this area, to also give a first look at the possibility of transgenerational inherited effects of environmental contaminants on the molecular alterations of sperm nuclear basic proteins (SNBP), DNA and semen parameters. In the father and son, we found a diverse excess of copper and chromium in the semen, different alterations in SNBP content and low DNA binding affinity of these proteins. In addition, DNA damage, in the presence of CuCl₂ and H₂O₂, increased by adding both the father and son SNBP. Interestingly, son SNBP, unlike his father, showed an unstable DNA binding and were able to produce DNA damage even without external addition of CuCl₂, in line with a lower seminal antioxidant activity than the father. The peculiarity of some characteristics of son semen could be a basis for possible future studies on transgenerational effects of pollutants on fertility.

Green nephrology and eco-dialysis: a position statement by the Italian Society of Nephrology

High-technology medicine saves lives and produces waste; this is the case of dialysis. The increasing amounts of waste products can be biologically dangerous in different ways: some represent a direct infectious or toxic danger for other living creatures (potentially contaminated or hazardous waste), while others are harmful for the planet (plastic and non-recycled waste). With the aim of increasing awareness, proposing joint actions and coordinating industrial and social interactions, the Italian Society of Nephrology is presenting this position statement on ways in which the environmental impact of caring for patients with kidney diseases can be reduced. Due to the particular relevance in waste management of dialysis, which produces up to 2 kg of potentially contaminated waste per session and about the same weight of potentially recyclable materials, together with technological waste (dialysis machines), and involves high water and electricity consumption, the position statement mainly focuses on dialysis management, identifying ten first affordable actions: (1) reducing the burden of dialysis (whenever possible adopting an intent to delay strategy, with wide use of incremental schedules); (2) limiting drugs and favouring "natural" medicine focussing on lifestyle and diet; (3) encouraging the reuse of "household" hospital material; (4) recycling paper and glass; (5) recycling non-contaminated plastic; (6) reducing water consumption; (7) reducing energy consumption; (8) introducing environmental-impact criteria in checklists for evaluating dialysis machines and supplies; (9) encouraging well-planned triage of contaminated and non-contaminated materials; (10) demanding planet-friendly approaches in the building of new facilities.

Investigation of a hazardous uncontrolled dumpsite in an oxbow lake of the Nitra River for pollution potential: a case study

This paper deals with the engineering-geological investigation of uncontrolled dumpsites that are abundant in post-communist countries. The sites may be redeveloped in an optimal manner by using the applied methodology of engineering-geological investigations. The research tool is a case study dealing with hazardous uncontrolled dumpsites chemically contaminated by various substances, particularly carcinogenic chromium. The dumpsite is located in the alluvial sediments of an oxbow lake of the Nitra River in the Slovak Republic. The hazard is seen in the fact that the alluvial sediments are permeable and thus the contamination may spread easily. At the same time, it is located near a river, which makes the hazard greater. Apart from the risk of contamination, another risk is related to the methane generated by the dumpsite and thus the risk of self-ignition. In order to identify the uncontrolled dumpsite body, the research was grounded in the different physical properties of the diverse geological environments. Quasi-homogenous blocks of the dumpsite body and its alluvial surroundings were well identified by using the combined three geophysical methods, namely dipole electromagnetic profiling (DEMP), electrical resistance tomography (ERT) and spontaneous polarization (SP). In order to eliminate the risk of contamination spread, redevelopment measures for the uncontrolled dumpsite in the form of sealing walls and surface sealing foil were proposed. A system of methane drainage boreholes was proposed to eliminate the risk of self-ignition. The methodology in this case study is well applicable for other uncontrolled dumpsites, which is an important outcome of the study.

Removal of 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid from water and organic by-product minimization by catalytic ozonation

BACKGROUND

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-DCPA acid) is a toxic herbicide. Earlier studies to remove 2,4-DCPA acid from water used expensive and/or toxic reagents, resulting in the formation of toxic organic by-products (Org-BPs). This study evaluates the removal of 2,4-DCPA acid from aqueous media using uncatalysed and catalytic ozonation with Fe doped with Ni and Co respectively.

METHODS

Mixed metal oxides of Ni and Co loaded on Fe respectively, prepared by co-precipitation and physical mixing were used as catalyst for ozone facilitated oxidation degradation of 2,4-DCPA acid. Their surface properties were determined by employing SEM, BET and NH₃-TPD. HPLC, IC and TOC data were used for quantifying substrate and oxidation products.

RESULTS

Conversion of 2,4-DCPA acid increased from 38% in acidic water to 73% in basic water, however, only 26% of the total carbon was removed and 9.5% in the form of Org-BPs. With 7:3 Fe:Ni (Co-ppt) catalyst (surface area 253 m² g^-1; particle size 236 nm), 97% of pollutant was converted. Most importantly, 92% of carbon was removed and Org-BP formation was minimized to 1.5%. With 7:3 Fe:Ni (Mixed) catalyst (surface area 12 m² g^-1; particle size 1274 nm), 68% of 2,4-DCPA acid was converted, while 23% of TOC was removed, however, 66% of Org-BP's still remained.

CONCLUSION

In uncatalysed ozonation degradation of 2,4-DCPA acid improved with the increase in hydroxide ion concentration. Ozonation in presence of 7:3 Fe:Ni (Co-ppt) catalyst resulted in highest activity for dechlorination, TOC removal and Org-BP minimization, thus improving the quality of contaminated water.

Source patterns and contamination level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in urban and rural areas of Southern Italian soils

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of persistent organic pollutants. They have been identified as a type of carcinogenic substance and are relatively widespread in environment media such as air, water and soils, constituting a significant hazard for human health. In many parts of the world, PAHs are still found in high concentrations despite improved legislation and monitoring, and it is therefore vital defining their profiles, and assessing their potential sources. This study focused on a large region of the south of Italy, where concentration levels, profiles, possible sources and toxicity equivalent quantity (TEQ) level of sixteen PAHs were investigated. The survey included soils from five large regions of the south of Italy: 80 soil samples (0-20 cm top layer) from urban and rural locations were collected and analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Total PAHs and individual molecular compounds from the US Environmental Protection Agency priority pollutants list were identified and measured. Results showed that 16 PAHs varied significantly in urban and rural areas, and different regions presented discordant characteristics. Urban areas presented concentrations ranging from 7.62 to 755 ng g^-1 (mean = 84.85 ng g^-1), whilst rural areas presented ranges from 1.87 to 11,353 ng g^-1 (mean = 333 ng g^-1). Large urban areas, such as Rome, Naples and Palermo, exhibited high PAHs total concentration, but high values were also found in rural areas of Campania region. Different PAHs molecular ratios were used as diagnostic fingerprinting for source identification: LWMPAHs/HWMPAHs, Fluo/(Fluo + Pyr), BaA/(BaA + Chr), Ant/(Ant +  Phe) and IcdP/(IcdP + BghiP). These ratios indicated that PAHs sources in the study area were mainly of pyrogenic origin, i.e. mostly related to biomass combustion and vehicular emission. On the other hand, values in Sicilian soils seemed to indicate a petrogenic origin, possibly linked to emissions from crude oil combustion and refineries present in the region. Finally, results allowed to calculate the toxicity equivalent quantity (TEQ_BAP) levels for the various locations sampled, highlighting that the highest values were found in the Campania region, with 661 and 54.20 ng g^-1, in rural and urban areas, respectively. These findings, which could be linked to the presence of a large solid waste incinerator plant, but also to well-documented illegal waste disposal and burning, suggest that exposure to PAH may be posing an increased risk to human health in some of the studied areas.

Composition and emission of VOC from biogas produced by illegally managed waste landfills in Giugliano (Campania, Italy) and potential impact on the local population

The composition in Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) of the biogas produced by seven landfills of Giugliano (Naples, Campania, Italy) was determined and VOC emission rates assessed to verify if these compounds represent a potential threat to the population living nearby. VOC composition in the biogas could not be predicted, as heterogeneous waste was dumped from the late 1980s to the early 2000s and then underwent biological degradation. No data are available on the amount and composition of VOC in the biogas before the landfills closure as no operational biogas collection system was present. In this study, VOC composition was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), after collecting samples from collection pipes and from soil fractures in cover soil or capping. Individual VOC were quantified and data compared with those collected at two landfills in Latium, when they were still in operation. Relevant differences were observed, mainly due to waste aging, but no specific VOC revealing toxic waste dumping was found, although the concurrent presence of certain compounds suggested that dumping of industrial wastes might have occurred. The average VOC emission was assessed and a dispersion model was run to find out if the emitted plume could affect the health of population. The results suggested that fugitive emissions did not represent a serious danger, since the concentrations simulated at the neighboring cities were below the threshold limits for acute and chronic diseases. However, VOC plume could cause annoyance at night when the steady state conditions of the atmosphere enhance pollutants accumulation in the lower layers. In addition, some of the emitted VOC, such as alkylbenzenes and monoterpenes, can contribute to tropospheric ozone formation.

Impacts of bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalate exposures on epigenetic outcomes in the human placenta

The placenta guides fetal growth and development. Bisphenol A (BPA) and phthalates are widespread environmental contaminants and endocrine disruptors, and the placental epigenetic response to these chemicals is an area of growing research interest. Therefore, our objective was to summarize research linking BPA or phthalate exposure to placental outcomes in human pregnancies, with a particular focus on epigenetic endpoints. In PubMed, studies were selected for review (without limiting start date and ending on 1 May 2018) if they reported any direct effects of BPA or phthalates on the placenta in humans. Collectively, available studies suggest that BPA and phthalate exposures are associated with changes to placental micro-RNA expression, DNA methylation, and genomic imprinting. Furthermore, several studies suggest that fetal sex may be an important modifier of placental outcomes in response to these chemicals. Studies in humans demonstrate associations of BPA and phthalate exposure with adverse placental outcomes. Moving forward, more studies should consider sex differences (termed "placental sex") in the measured outcomes, and should utilize appropriate statistical approaches to assess modification by fetal sex. Furthermore, more consistent sample collection and molecular outcome assessment paradigms will be indispensable for making progress in the field. These advances, together with improved non-invasive tools for measuring placental function and outcomes across pregnancy, will be critical for understanding the mechanisms driving placental epigenetic disruption in response to BPA and phthalates, and how these disruptions translate into placental and fetal health.

Heavy Environmental Pressure in Campania and Other Italian Regions: A Short Review of Available Evidence

The area of Naples and Campania region, in Italy, are experiencing the dramatic consequences of diffuse and illegal waste dumping, resulting in possible threats to human health. This area has been referred to as the “Land of Fires” because of the common practice of waste burning. International interest in the Campania “waste emergency” has triggered several epidemiological studies. This article is aimed at highlighting the body of evidence available concerning human and environmental contamination in the Campania region, and considers the possible lack of comparable knowledge about the situation in other areas suffering from high environmental pollution. We analyzed the results of studies addressing environmental pollution and population health in the Campania region, starting from the most recent reviews on this topic, and compared their findings with those concerning other regions. We reviewed 18 studies of epidemiological/cancer surveillance and human or animal biomonitoring. These studies show worrying results, which could be considered comparable to those available for other Italian areas impacted by heavy industrial activities. The release of environmental contaminants associated with waste incineration and waste disposal in landfills poses a risk to public health, as shown by a number of studies (although not conclusively). The current knowledge available for the Campania region is better than that available for other areas which are facing similar problems due to anthropic activities, including illegal waste trafficking. Thus, Naples and Campania could represent a valuable setting to develop general models for studies of environmental and human contamination.

Occurrence of Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans and Polychlorinated Biphenyls in Fruit and Vegetables from the "Land of Fires" Area of Southern Italy

The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-concentrations dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs) (PCDD/Fs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were determined in fruit and vegetables collected in farms located in the well-known “Land of Fires” area of Southern Italy, in an effort to learn more about the environmental pollution of this high-risk area due to illegal waste dumping and uncontrolled burning near cultivated fields. Concentrations were in the range 0.011–2.26 ng g⁻¹ for the six “indicator” non-dioxin-like PCBs (NDL-PCBs), and 0.0009–0.096 pg WHO toxic equivalent (TEQ) g⁻¹ for the sum of dioxin-like PCBs (DL-PCBs) and PCDD/Fs. Lacking maximum limits for these contaminants in fruit and vegetables, the concentration values found were compared with the action levels set out in the EU Recommendations. These levels were never exceeded in the examined samples. In the present study, the highest mean value for PCDD/Fs + DL-PCB corresponded to apricots, olives, and nuts, while the lowest values were observed in endive and green beans. The results showed also that NDL-PCB levels in apricots were much higher than in any other food, suggesting that they can accumulate PCBs: this fruit might be proposed as a “sentinel” of the presence of these contaminants in the environment.

Effects of Highly Polluted Environment on Sperm Telomere Length: A Pilot Study

High environmental pressure may impair male fertility by affecting sperm quality, but the real effect remains controversial. Herein, we assessed the influence of environmental exposure on telomere length (TL) in both leukocytes (LTL) and sperm cells (STL). A pilot biomonitoring study was conducted in 112 clinically healthy, normospermic men living in various areas of Campania region (South of Italy) with high (n = 57, High Group) or low (n = 55, Low Group) environmental pressure. TL analysis was assessed by quantitative real time-PCR. STL was not significantly correlated with either age (p = 0.6) or LTL (p = 0.7), but was significantly longer in the High Group compared with the Low Group (p = 0.04). No significant difference was observed between leukocyte TL in the High or Low Group. Our results showed that male residents in areas with high environment exposure had a significant increase in STL. This finding supports the view that the human semen is a sentinel biomarker of environmental exposure.

Evaluation of Trace Elements in Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) from a Suburban Area of Naples, Italy: The "Triangle of Death"

Human exposure to contaminated food is a general health concern worldwide; it is necessary to evaluate food safety with respect to contaminants present in the edible parts of major food crops. This study evaluated the concentrations of 17 trace elements (As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, V, and Zn) from 51 potato plantations in the Campania region, inside the area known as the "Triangle of Death," with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis. Results confirm that the potatoes collected from the suburban area of Naples contained concentrations of trace elements below the safe limits prescribed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the World Health Organization. The concentrations of elements were similar to those reported for potatoes grown in other countries. Monitoring the content of toxic and potentially toxic elements is one of the most important aspects of food quality assurance. The environmental persistence of metals may result in the accumulation of significant levels of these contaminants in plants. They are absorbed to different extents, depending on their source, soil and climatic factors, plant genotype, and agrotechnical conditions, thereby entering the food chain and representing a risk to human health.

Environmental pollutants: genetic damage and epigenetic changes in male germ cells

About a quarter of the human diseases occurs for exposure to air pollution. The male reproductive system, and especially spermatogenesis, seems to be particularly sensitive. As result, male infertility is increasing in industrial countries becoming a top priority for public health. In addition to psychological distress and economic constraints, poorer semen quality may have trans-generational effects including congenital malformations in the offspring and predispose to later onset adult diseases. Genetic and epigenetic alterations are involved in the failure of spermatogenesis. In this paper, we reviewed the major evidences of the effects of air pollutants on male infertility as well as the role of sperm DNA damage and epigenetic changes in affecting spermatogenesis. A better knowledge on the effects of air contaminants on the molecular mechanisms leading to infertility is of huge importance to help clinicians in identifying the cause of infertility but above all, in defining preventive and therapeutic protocols.

Environment and Health: Not Only Cancer

The Hippocratic tradition emphasized environmental causes of diseases and the need for harmony between the individual and the natural environment as the right philosophy to maintain a good health status. Public awareness and scientific attention concerning environmental pollution is usually focused on the consequent increased risk of developing cancer. Air pollution has been recognized by the World Health Organization (WHO) to cause cardiovascular and respiratroy diseases, as well as lung cancer, after acute/chronic exposure to fine particulates (PM2.5 and PM10) even at concentrations which are 50% lower than those accepted as legal limits in many developed countries. An increase of 10 µg/m³ of PM2.5 produces a +4%-6% of overall mortality, a +10% of cardiovascular disease prevalence (arithmyas, acute myocardial infarctions, and heart failure) and a +22% of lung cancer prevalence. In addition to these chronic effects, acute hospitalizations are also affected, especially among susceptible populations such as children and diabetic patients. Water and soil contamination also have an additional detrimental effect on people's health. Other issues concerning environment contamination and human health include male/female fertility, metabolic and thyroid conditions, but also professional exposures resulting in occupational diseases. Moreover, in the perspective of "gender medicine", different acute or chronic effects of environmental pollution should be specifically assessed both in men and in women. This special issue on "Environmental Diseases" is aimed at providing a global overview about different threats to human health possibily originating from environmental contamination.