Composition, Cytotoxic and Antimicrobial Activities of Satureja intermedia C.A.Mey Essential Oil

Transcriptomic and untargeted metabolomic studies on the anticoccidial activity of eugenol in broilers

Coccidiosis, a protozoan disease caused by Eimeria parasites, significantly impacts the poultry industry. Traditional control methods involve the addition of anticoccidial drugs to feed, which has led to concerns over drug residues. Thus, the search for alternative treatments has become a research priority, with plant essential oils emerging as a promising option. In the study, we evaluated the anticoccidial effects of seven plant-derived products on Eimeria tenella using a broiler cage trial and calculated the anticoccidial index (ACI) to assess their efficacy. The results revealed that eucalyptus oil had the highest ACI (157.79), followed closely by eugenol (155.41), both nearing the 160.00 threshold. Eugenol demonstrated a lower oocyst output compared to eucalyptus oil, leading us to focus on the mechanism of eugenol's anticoccidial activity using transcriptomic and untargeted metabolomic analyses. Transcriptomic analysis of cecal tissue revealed 749 upregulated and 1057 downregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs). The top three enriched Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways were the extracellular matrix (ECM)-receptor interaction, cell adhesion molecules, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, with the latter pathway showing significant expression differences in 40 genes. This suggests that eugenol modulates the immune response in broilers by regulating the expression of various cytokines. Metabolomic analysis identified 103 upregulated and 22 downregulated differential metabolites, with a high enrichment of the gut IgA production-related immune network pathway. Notably, vitamin A acid, a key metabolite in this pathway, was significantly upregulated. ELISA assays confirmed the upregulation of SIgA, a terminal product of this metabolic pathway. Additionally, several anti-inflammatory metabolites and prebiotics, such as fumaric acid, quinolinic acid, succinic acid, and d-raffinose, were significantly upregulated. These results indicate that eugenol modulates the intestinal immune network and levels of various anti-inflammatory metabolites and prebiotics, suggesting its role in anticoccidial activity through the regulation of DEGs and differential metabolites. This study demonstrates that eugenol has the potential to serve as a safe alternative or adjunct to anticoccidial drugs in poultry and deepens our understanding of its anticoccidial activity.

Antioxidant and cytotoxicity activity of a nanoemulsion from Satureja kermanica (Lamiaceae)

OBJECTIVE

Satureja kermanica is a native species with a relatively wide distribution in Iran, which has been studied less. Due to the low stability of the plants, in this study, the methanolic extract of S. kermanica (MSK) along with a nanoemulsion (NEK) preparation was evaluated in terms of antioxidant and cytotoxic activity.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The aerial parts of S. kermanica were collected and after studying the organoleptic characteristics and quality control parameters, were extracted with methanol. Total phenolic compounds and total flavonoids of the plant were measured. A nanoemulsion preparation was prepared using ultrasonication method from S. kermanica extract. After measuring the particle size of nanoemulsion, both MSK and NEK were evaluated for their antioxidant and cytotoxic activity using DPPH scavenging assay and MTT colorimetric method on breast cancer cell line (MCF-7) respectively.

RESULTS

Phytochemical studies exhibited the presence of secondary metabolites including flavonoids, tannins, steroids and carbohydrates in the plant. Based on the histogram of the SBL nanosizer, the average diameter of nanoemulsion was determined as 37.09nm. Both MSK and NEK showed dose-dependent antioxidant and cytotoxic activity. The IC50 value of MSK and NEK for DPPH inhibition was 30.105±2.781 58.14±0.84μg/mL and for toxicity toward MCF-7 cell line was 1251.088 and 201.745±4.554μg/mL respectively.

CONCLUSION

MSK and NEK showed antioxidant and cytotoxic activity, but in NEK, the antioxidant and cytotoxic potential of the plant was more prominent, which may be due to the rapid release of the bioactive component from the nanoemulsion.

The anticancer effects of thymol on HepG2 cell line

There is an increasing incidence of liver cancer, which is a hazard for global health. The present study was designed to evaluate possible cytotoxic, genotoxic, apoptotic, oxidant and antioxidant effects of thymol on hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cell line. The cytotoxic effect of thymol on HepG2 cell line was determined by XTT test. We also used the HUVEC cell line to show whether thymol damages healthy cells. Oxidative stress level was determined with Total Oxidant Status (TOS) and Total Antioxidant Status (TAS) measurement kits. Apoptosis of cells was detected in flow cytometry with Annexin V apoptosis kit. Apoptotic gene expressions were analyzed by real-time PCR. Genotoxicity was determined by comet assay, which measures DNA damage. The thymol IC50 dose was found to be 11 μM on HepG2 cell line. This dose had no lethal effect on the healthy HUVEC cell line. While thymol significantly decreased the TOS level, it increased the TAS level significantly in HepG2 cells compared to control. Thymol significantly induced apoptosis in HepG2 cells (apoptosis rate in control group 1%, in thymol group 21%). Thymol did not alter the gene expressions of bax, bcl-2, and casp3, all of which are associated with apoptosis. Statistically significant change in favor of genotoxicity was observed in tail length measurements. Our results suggest that thymol decreases oxidative stress in HepG2 cell line, but it induces apoptosis and genotoxicity.

Review on Additives in Hydrogels for 3D Bioprinting of Regenerative Medicine: From Mechanism to Methodology

The regeneration of biological tissues in medicine is challenging, and 3D bioprinting offers an innovative way to create functional multicellular tissues. One common way in bioprinting is bioink, which is one type of the cell-loaded hydrogel. For clinical application, however, the bioprinting still suffers from satisfactory performance, e.g., in vascularization, effective antibacterial, immunomodulation, and regulation of collagen deposition. Many studies incorporated different bioactive materials into the 3D-printed scaffolds to optimize the bioprinting. Here, we reviewed a variety of additives added to the 3D bioprinting hydrogel. The underlying mechanisms and methodology for biological regeneration are important and will provide a useful basis for future research.

The Essential Oil from Oliveria decumbens Vent. (Apiaceae) as Inhibitor of Breast Cancer Cell (MCF-7) Growth

Oliveria decumbens Vent. is an aromatic and medicinal plant traditionally used in Iran for the treatment of infections, gastrointestinal diseases, cancer, and inflammation. This research was aimed at investigating the pharmacological potential of O. decumbens essential oil (OEO) and its main compounds, focusing on OEO's cytotoxic effects on MCF-7 breast cancer cells. OEO was obtained by hydro-distillation, and the chemical constituents were identified using GC-MS. Thymol, carvacrol, γ-terpinene, and p-cymene were the main OEO constituents. When MCF-7 cells were treated with OEO, the expressions of genes related to apoptosis (BIM and Bcl-2), tumor suppression (PTEN), and cell growth inhibition (AURKA), were evaluated using real-time PCR. Moreover, molecular docking was used for studying in silico the interaction of OEO principal compounds with PTEN and AURKA. The expression of AURKA was significantly reduced since the OEO treatment enhanced the expression of PTEN. Through in silico molecular docking, it was revealed that thymol, carvacrol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene can activate PTEN and thus inhibit AURKA. Additionally, the DNA fragmentation assay, acridine orange/ethidium bromide (AO/EB) double-staining assay, and real-time PCR highlighted the fact that the OEO treatment could activate apoptosis and inhibit cell proliferation. Therefore, OEO is a viable candidate to be employed in the pharmaceutical industry, specifically as a possible agent for cancer therapy.

Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, and Antihypertension Inhibitory Potentials of Phenolic Rich Medicinal Plants

Veronica (Plantaginaceae) and Schoenoplectus have a unique chemotaxonomic and phytochemical importance and are widely utilized in Turkish and Traditional Chinese Herbal Medicine (TCM) for treating tonics, influenza, diuretics, expectorants, restoratives, and respiratory diseases, and both are very useful in treating infectious and metabolic disorders as well. This study evaluates two medicinal plant species, Veronica biloba and Schoenoplectus triqueter (L.) Palla; extraction was performed through Soxhlet and maceration methods as well as determination of free and bound phenolics. Evaluated biological screening of (extracts and phenolics) angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE), Type-II diabetes (α-glucosidase and α-amylase), and antioxidants potential was performed using modified assays. The angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) 50% inhibition potential in Veronica biloba was found at IC50 = 210.68 μg/mL and in Schoenoplectus triqueter (L.) Palla at IC50 = 229.40 µg/mL, respectively. Meanwhile Type-II diabetes with α-amylase 50% inhibition shown by bound phenolics of Veronica biloba at IC50 = 219.66 µg/mL and its water extract at IC50 = 110.09 µg/mL possesses higher potential, and α-glucosidase potential by free phenolics was found to be active at IC50 = 469.56 µg/mL, while water and ethyl acetate extracts showed higher potential, IC50 = 78.65 µg/mL and IC50 = 97.03 µg/mL, than the standard acarbose, recorded lower. In case of amylase, α-glucosidase showed IC50 = 88.73 μg/mL. Our results showed that both plants possess a direct relationship with the increase in the concentration of extracts and inhibited very strongly angiotensin-I converting enzyme (ACE) and Type-II diabetes (α-glucosidase and α-amylase). The properties of enzyme hindrance may be associated with phenolic compounds and rich phenolic plant antioxidant potential provides a route to the elucidation of natural antihypertension and antidiabetes.

Susceptibility of Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) to the Fumigation of Two Essential Satureja Oils: Optimization and Modeling

Due to the numerous side effects of synthetic pesticides, including environmental pollution, threats to human health, harmful effects on non-target organisms and pest resistance, the use of alternative healthy, available and efficient agents in pest management strategies is necessary. In this paper, the susceptibility of the cosmopolitan, polyphagous, stored-product pest Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle) to the fumigation of the essential oils of two important medicinal and food additive plants, Satureja hortensis and S. intermedia, was investigated. The insecticidal properties of the essential oils were modeled and optimized using response surface methodology. It was found that a maximum significant mortality of 94.72% and 92.97% could be achieved within 72 h with the applications of 55.15 µL/L of S. hortensis (with the linear model) and 58.82 µL/L of S. intermedia (with the quadratic model), respectively. There were insecticidal terpenes and phenylpropanoids in both essential oils, including thymol (50.8%), carvacrol (11.2%) and p-cymene (13.4%), in the S. intermedia and estragole (68.0%) and methyl eugenol (5.6%) in the S. hortensis. It was suggested that the essential oils of S. hortensis and S. intermedia could be offered as promising pesticidal agents against T. castaneum for further studies in the management of such pests instead of detrimental synthetic pesticides.

Effects of Garlic Powder and Satureja Khuzestanica Essential Oil on Male Ross 308 Chickens Performance, Blood Lipid Profile, Immune Responses, Intestinal Microflora, and Morphology

Background: Herbal antioxidants have beneficial effects on health and performance. Meanwhile, medicinal plants and their derivations are utilized as growth and immunity promoter. Objectives: This research aimed to evaluate the effects of garlic powder and Satureja Khuzestanica essential oil (SKEO) on broiler performance, blood lipid profile, immune responses, intestinal microflora, and morphology. Methods: In total, 400 male chickens were randomly divided into five groups. Treatments included garlic powder (2 and 4%) and SKEO (400 and 500 mg/kg). Those in the control group received no intervention. On the 35th day of the experiment, the immune system of subjects was investigated, and at the end of the study, performance and blood lipid profile were analyzed. Also, the jejunal and ileal contents were separated to investigate the intestinal morphology and microflora. Results: Administration of herbal extracts was associated with improved performance, such as feed intake, BWG, and FCR (P < 0.05). Treatments could diminish the serum concentrations of lipid profile, including cholesterol, triglycerides, and LDL (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, the number of harmful intestinal bacteria was reduced by garlic (4% of diet) and SKEO (500 mg/kg) treatments (P < 0.05). Also, morphological characteristics of the intestine were improved (P < 0.05). Herbal plant supplement remarkably increased the villus length, villus length to crypt depth, and villus area (P < 0.05), but did not affect the immune responses (P > 0.05). Conclusions: This study demonstrated that dietary inclusion of herbal extracts is potentially an effective strategy for improving health and performance in broiler chickens.

Nanoemulsions of Satureja montana Essential Oil: Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Activity against Avian Escherichia coli Strains

Satureja montana essential oil (SEO) presents a wide range of biological activities due to its high content of active phytochemicals. In order to improve the essential oil’s (EO) properties, oil in water nanoemulsions (NEs) composed of SEO and Tween-80 were prepared, characterized, and their antimicrobial and antibiofilm properties assayed against Escherichia coli strains isolated from healthy chicken. Since surfactant and oil composition can strongly influence NE features and their application field, a ternary phase diagram was constructed and evaluated to select a suitable surfactant/oil/water ratio. Minimal inhibitory concentration and minimal bactericidal concentration of NEs, evaluated by the microdilution method, showed that the SEO NE formulation exhibited higher inhibitory effects against planktonic E. coli than SEO alone. The quantification of biofilm production in the presence of NEs, assessed by crystal violet staining and scanning electron microscopy, evidenced that sub-MIC concentrations of SEO NEs enable an efficient reduction of biofilm production by the strong producer strains. The optimized nanoemulsion formulation could ensure food safety quality, and counteract the antibiotic resistance of poultry associated E. coli, if applied/aerosolized in poultry farms.

An In Vitro Evaluation of the Molecular Mechanisms of Action of Medical Plants from the Lamiaceae Family as Effective Sources of Active Compounds against Human Cancer Cell Lines

It is predicted that 1.8 million new cancer cases will be diagnosed worldwide in 2020; of these, the incidence of lung, colon, breast, and prostate cancers will be 22%, 9%, 7%, and 5%, respectively according to the National Cancer Institute. As the global medical cost of cancer in 2020 will exceed about $150 billion, new approaches and novel alternative chemoprevention molecules are needed. Research indicates that the plants of the Lamiaceae family may offer such potential. The present study reviews selected species from the Lamiaceae and their active compounds that may have the potential to inhibit the growth of lung, breast, prostate, and colon cancer cells; it examines the effects of whole extracts, individual compounds, and essential oils, and it discusses their underlying molecular mechanisms of action. The studied members of the Lamiaceae are sources of crucial phytochemicals that may be important modulators of cancer-related molecular targets and can be used as effective factors to support anti-tumor treatment.

Biological Evaluation of Essential Oils from Selected Medicinal Plants and Their Main Components against Phytomonas davidi (Kinetoplastea: Trypanosomatidae)

Eight essential oils (EOs) from selected medicinal plants have been tested for their activity against Phytomonas davidi, a plant trypanosomal parasite. In the present research, the EOs have been tested on promastigote forms of P. davidi ATCC^® 30287™ strain, along with their major components, both separately and in binary combinations, using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction assay. The EOs with the highest antipromastigote activity were from Origanum virens and Salvia lavandulifolia. Thymol and β-pinene were the most active pure compounds. The study of the activity of the pure compounds in combination indicated the existence of antagonistic and synergistic effects depending on the concentration tested. In general, the combinations at low concentrations favored the activity.

In Vitro Evaluation of the Antimicrobial and Immunomodulatory Activity of Culinary Herb Essential Oils as Potential Perioceutics

Due to their antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and regenerative activities, culinary herbs have multiple medicinal uses, among which to prevent and treat oral diseases. The whole essential oils (EOs) have multiple advantages over purified components, such as a low probability to select for antimicrobial resistance, synergic effects of different components, and multi-pharmacological activities. In this study, we aimed to evaluate essential oils from Salvia officinalis (sage), Satureja hortensis (summer savory), and Anethum graveolens (dill) using an in vitro analysis of their antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains isolated from the oral cavity of patients with periodontitis; the assays addressed both the planktonic and biofilm growth states and used culture-based approaches. Some of the tested EOs exhibited excellent bactericidal and antibiofilm activity, being active at concentrations as low as 0.08-1.36 mg/mL. Flow cytometry was used to investigate the potential mechanisms of their antibacterial activity and confirmed that the tested EOs act by permeabilizing the bacterial membrane and by inhibiting the activity of the efflux pumps. The immunomodulatory effect of the three EOs was determined by analyzing the gene expression profiles for pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines of the THP-1 cells. The summer savory EO induced a clear proinflammatory effect, while the others did not significantly influence the cytokines profile of the tested cells. Taken together, our results indicate that summer savory EO and, to a lesser extent, sage and dill EOs could be used to inhibit bacteria involved in oral plaque formation and to reduce the expression of genes known to contribute to the inflammatory response using cell culture assessment.

Phytochemical Analysis and Biological Investigation of Nepeta juncea Benth. Different Extracts

This study was carried out to screen the amount and the classes of secondary metabolites and to evaluate the antioxidant, cytotoxic, antifungal, and antibacterial activities of the methanolic, ethanolic, and water extracts of the roots, leaves, and flowers of Nepeta juncea Benth. The results show that the highest total phenol (69.54 ± 0.31 mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/g dry weight), total flavonoid (41.37 ± 0.17 mg quercetin equivalents (QE)/g dry weight), anthocyanin (6.52 ± 0.21 mg cyanidin/100 g dry weight), and tannin (47.36 ± 0.33 mg catechin/g dry weight) concentrations were recorded in the methanolic extract of the leaves of N. juncea. The gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) analysis of the extracts showed that 1,8-cineole, 4aα-7α-7aα-nepetalactone, β-pinene, terpinen-4-ol, and α-terpineol were the major compounds, respectively. The best 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging and ferric-reducing antioxidant, cytotoxic, antifungal, and antibacterial activities were observed for the methanolic extract of the leaves. For the two latter activities, the best activity was revealed on Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Candida albicans. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for the antimicrobial of the methanolic extract from the leaves were in the range of 25–100 µg/mL, whereas the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values were in the range of 50–200 µg/mL. The results reported herein show that, for the first time in the literature, N. juncea is a remarkable source of antioxidant, antifungal, and antibacterial compounds.

Satureja montana L. Essential Oils: Chemical Profiles/Phytochemical Screening, Antimicrobial Activity and O/W NanoEmulsion Formulations

Chemical fingerprints of four different Satureja montana L. essential oils (SEOs) were assayed by an untargeted metabolomics approach based on Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance (FT-ICR) mass spectrometry (MS) coupled with either electrospray ionization or atmospheric pressure chemical ionization ion sources. Analysis and relative quantification of the non-polar volatile fraction were conducted by gas chromatography (GC) coupled to MS. FT-ICR MS confirmed significant differences in the polar metabolite composition, while GC-MS analyses confirmed slight fluctuations in the relative amount of major terpenes and terpenoids, known to play a key role in antimicrobial mechanisms. Oil in eater (O/W) nanoemulsions (NEs) composed by SEOs and Tween 20 or Tween 80 were prepared and analyzed in terms of hydrodynamic diameter, ζ-potential and polydispersity index. The results confirm the formation of stable NEs homogeneous in size. Minimum inhibitory and minimum bactericidal concentrations of SEOs were determined towards Gram-positive (Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus haemolyticus) and Gram-negative clinical isolates (Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Serratia marcescens). Commercial SEO showed strongest antibacterial activity, while SEO 3 was found to be the most active among the lab made extractions. MIC and MBC values ranged from 0.39 to 6.25 mg·mL⁻¹. Furthermore, a SEO structured in NEs formulation was able to preserve and improve antimicrobial activity.

Exploration of Medicinal Plants as Sources of Novel Anticandidal Drugs

BACKGROUND

Human infections associated with skin and mucosal surfaces, mainly in tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world. During the last decade, there have been an increasing numbers of cases of fungal infections in immunocompromised patients, coupled with an increase in the number of incidences of drug resistance and toxicity to anti fungal agents. Hence, there is a dire need for safe, potent and affordable new antifungal drugs for the efficient management of candidal infections with minimum or no side effects.

INTRODUCTION

Candidiasis represents a critical problem to human health and a serious concern worldwide. Due to the development of drug resistance, there is a need for new antifungal agents. Therefore, we reviewed the different medicinal plants as sources of novel anticandidal drugs.

METHODS

The comprehensive and detailed literature on medicinal plants was carried out using different databases, such as Google Scholar, PubMed, and Science Direct and all the relevant information from the articles were analyzed and included.

RESULTS

Relevant Publications up to the end of November 2018, reporting anticandidal activity of medicinal plants has been included in the present review. In the present study, we have reviewed in the light of SAR and mechanisms of action of those plants whose extracts or phytomolecules are active against candida strains.

CONCLUSION

This article reviewed natural anticandidal drugs of plant origin and also summarized the potent antifungal bioactivity against fungal strains. Besides, mechanism of action of these potent active plant molecules was also explored for a comparative study. We concluded that the studied active plant molecules exhibit potential antifungal activity against resistant fungal strains.

The antibacterial activity of "Satureja hortensis" extract and essential oil against oral bacteria

BACKGROUND

Recently, there has been an increasing growth in research on medical plant's effect on dental plaque bacteria. The aim of this study was to determine the antibacterial effects of Satureja hortensis extract and its essential oil (EO) on Streptococcus salivarius, Streptococcus sanguis, and Streptococcus mutans as important bacteria in early supragingival dental plaque formation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this in vitro study, different concentrations of S. hortensis extract and its EO were prepared using double dilution method. The disc diffusion method was used to determine antibacterial activity. Based on these measurements, the minimal inhibitory concentration value was reported for each bacterium. Antibiotics used as positive controls in this study were erythromycin (15 μg) and tetracycline (30 μg). t-test and ANOVA were used for statistical analysis (P < 0.05).

RESULTS

Aqueous and methanolic extract did not show significant antibacterial activity, but the EO significantly inhibited the growth of the test bacteria compared to positive control (P < 0.05). High concentrations of EO processed greater antimicrobial effects against three oral bacteria than other low concentrations (P < 0.0001). For S. mutans, the inhibition effect of tetracycline 30 μg was similar with 50% (P = 0.789) and 25% (P = 0.158) dosages of the EO. For S. salivarius, the effect of tetracycline 30 μg was similar to 50% dosages of the EO (P = 0.122). For S. sanguis, the effect of erythromycin 15 μg was lower than 50% (P = 0.0006) and 25% (P = 0.003) dosages of the EO. The inhibition effects of all concentrations of EO were higher for S. sanguis. S. salivarius and S. sanguis are more sensitive than S. mutans to S. hortensis EO.

CONCLUSION

Due to the strong antibacterial effect of S. hortensis EO on the oral bacteria growth, it can be served as herbal mouth rinse, while to confirm this antibacterial effect, further clinical studies are necessary.

Satureja subspicata and S. horvatii Extracts Induce Overexpression of the BCl-2 Family of Anti-apoptotic Genes and Reduce Micronuclei Frequency in Mice

Satureja subspicata and S. horvatii are endemic species of the Balkan Peninsula and often used in traditional medicine in Bosnia and Herzegovina to treat different health conditions. We aimed to analyze the unevaluated apoptotic, genotoxic and cytotoxic effects of two Satureja species, as well as their content of phenolics that are mainly responsible for the plant's biological activity. Apoptotic and geno/cytotoxic activities of S. subspicata and S. horvatii were investigated in vitro in human lymphocyte culture and in vivo in mice. The content of the main phenolics in plant extracts was determined by ultra-high pressure liquid chromatography-MS-MS (UHPLC–MS/MS). Genotoxic and cytotoxic activities of Satureja extracts were evaluated in vitro by applying a cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assay in human lymphocyte culture and in vivo applying a mice reticulocytes micronucleus assay. SALSA RT-MLPA R011-C1 apoptosis assay was used for measuring the relative expression of 44 genes associated with the regulation of the apoptotic pathways in human lymphocyte cultures treated with different concentrations of two Satureja extracts. The first analysis of phenolic compounds in S. horvatii and S. subspicata determined by an UHPLC-MS/MS method revealed high levels of rosmarinic and caffeic acids. Minor genotoxic potential was determined in relation to the tested concentrations while no cytostatic and cytotoxic effects were revealed in vitro. However, when applied in concentrations of 200 mg/kg per os, aqueous extracts of two Satureja species significantly decreased frequency of reticulocytes micronuclei in treated mice against controls. Extracts of S. subspicata and S. horvatii in concentrations of 0.2 mg/mL, regardless of solvent used, downregulated pro-apoptotic and upregulated anti-apoptotic genes, showing anti-apoptotic activity. Our results indicate that the registered anti-genotoxic and anti-apoptotic activity is most likely related to the high level of phenolic acids (particularly rosmarinic and caffeic) in the tested extracts.

Trypanocidal Effects of Essential Oils from Selected Medicinal Plants. Synergy among the Main Components

Fourteen essential oils (EOs) from selected live germplasm of medicinal plants have been tested for their antitrypanosomal and cytotoxic activity. These plants have been domesticated and maintained under experimental cultivation. Their EOs were tested on epimastigote forms of Trypanosoma cruzi strain Y and human lung fibroblasts LC5 cell line, along with the major components of the active oils, both separately and in binary combinations. Mentha rotundifolia, Thymus zygis, T. vulgaris and Hyssopus officinalis were the most active EOs against T. cruzi. Among the main components of these EOs (1-8-cineole, thymol, p-cymene, piperitenone oxide, β-pinene, γ-terpinene, carvacrol and linalool), the most active against the parasite and less toxic to human cells was thymol. In general, the activity of the main components did not exceed that of their origin EO, and the study of the activity of these compounds in combination indicates the existence of antagonistic and synergistic effects depending on the concentration tested.

Cross-Linked Polymer-Stabilized Nanocomposites for the Treatment of Bacterial Biofilms

Infections caused by bacterial biofilms are an emerging threat to human health. Conventional antibiotic therapies are ineffective against biofilms due to poor penetration of the extracellular polymeric substance secreted by colonized bacteria coupled with the rapidly growing number of antibiotic-resistant strains. Essential oils are promising natural antimicrobial agents; however, poor solubility in biological conditions limits their applications against bacteria in both dispersed (planktonic) and biofilm settings. We report here an oil-in-water cross-linked polymeric nanocomposite (∼250 nm) incorporating carvacrol oil that penetrates and eradicates multidrug-resistant (MDR) biofilms. The therapeutic potential of these materials against challenging wound biofilm infections was demonstrated through specific killing of bacteria in a mammalian cell-biofilm coculture wound model.

Biological Activities of Essential Oils: From Plant Chemoecology to Traditional Healing Systems

Essential oils are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons and their oxygenated derivatives arising from two different isoprenoid pathways. Essential oils are produced by glandular trichomes and other secretory structures, specialized secretory tissues mainly diffused onto the surface of plant organs, particularly flowers and leaves, thus exerting a pivotal ecological role in plant. In addition, essential oils have been used, since ancient times, in many different traditional healing systems all over the world, because of their biological activities. Many preclinical studies have documented antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anticancer activities of essential oils in a number of cell and animal models, also elucidating their mechanism of action and pharmacological targets, though the paucity of in human studies limits the potential of essential oils as effective and safe phytotherapeutic agents. More well-designed clinical trials are needed in order to ascertain the real efficacy and safety of these plant products.

The Effect of Carvacrol on Inflammatory Pain and Motor Coordination in Rats

Carvacrol is a monoterpenic phenol and an active ingredient of the plant essential oils of the family Lamiaceae. We have investigated the analgesic effect of carvacrol, the possible dependence of the effect in relation to animal sex, and the impact of carvacrol on motor coordination in rats. Hyperalgesia was induced by formalin (1.5%), which was administered SC in the upper lip of rat. Hyperalgesia and effects of carvacrol and indomethacin were measured by using the orofacial formalin test. The influence on motor coordination in animals treated with carvacrol was investigated by using the rota-rod test. Carvacrol administered PO in pre-treatment (45 min. prior to formalin) at a single dose of 50, 75 and 100 mg /kg BW, in the male, 50 and 100 mg /kg BW, in female rats caused a dose-dependent antinociceptive effect. This effect of carvacrol was significantly higher (P<0.01, P<0.001) in male rats. Compared with indomethacin administered during pre-treatment (2 mg/kg, PO), carvacrol (100 mg/kg) exhibits significantly higher (P <0.05 and P <0.001) antinociceptive effect on formalininduced hyperalgesia in male rats. In the rota-rod test carvacrol did not disturb the motor coordination in male rats, nor the dose of carvacrol with clear antinociceptive properties exhibited depressive effect on the CNS of treated rats. Keeping in mind that the monoterpene carvacrol is of plant origin, with potentially less side effects and without residues, it is realistic to expect the possibility of its therapeutic use in the treatment of inflammatory pain in animals.

Anti-Candida albicans natural products, sources of new antifungal drugs: A review

INTRODUCTION

Candida albicans is the most prevalent fungal pathogen in humans. Due to the development of drug resistance, there is today a need for new antifungal agents for the efficient management of C. albicans infections. Therefore, we reviewed antifungal activity, mechanisms of action, possible synergism with antifungal drugs of all natural substances experimented to be efficient against C. albicans for future.

METHODS

An extensive and systematic review of the literature was undertaken and all relevant abstracts and full-text articles analyzed and included in the review.

REVIEW

A total of 111 documents were published and highlighted 142 anti-C. albicans natural products. These products are mostly are reported in Asia (44.37%) and America (28.17%). According to in vitro model criteria, from the 142 natural substances, antifungal activity can be considered as important for 40 (28.20%) and moderate for 24 (16.90%). Sixteen products have their antifungal activity confirmed by in vivo gold standard experimentation. Microbial natural products, source of antifungals, have their antifungal mechanism well described in the literature: interaction with ergosterol (polyenes), inhibition 1,3-β-d-glucan synthase (Echinocandins), inhibition of the synthesis of cell wall components (chitin and mannoproteins), inhibition of sphingolipid synthesis (serine palmitoyltransferase, ceramide synthase, inositol phosphoceramide synthase) and inhibition of protein synthesis (sordarins). Natural products from plants mostly exert their antifungal effects by membrane-active mechanism. Some substances from arthropods are also explored to act on the fungal membrane. Interestingly, synergistic effects were found between different classes of natural products as well as between natural products and azoles.

CONCLUSION

Search for anti-C. albicans new drugs is promising since the list of natural substances, which disclose activity against this yeast is today long. Investigations must be pursued not only to found more new anti-Candida compounds from plants and organisms but also to carried out details on molecules from already known anti-Candida compounds and to more elucidate mechanisms of action.

Chemical Composition and Bio-efficacy of Essential Oils from Italian Aromatic Plants: Mentha suaveolens, Coridothymus capitatus, Origanum hirtum and Rosmarinus officinalis

The chemical composition, antifungal, antioxidant and cytotoxic activities of the essential oils (EOs) of mint (Mentha suaveolens), thyme (Coridothymus capitatus), oregano (Origanum hirtum) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) were investigated. The antifungal properties of the EOs were investigated against four species of Candida by a microdilution method. Cytotoxicity was tested on human keratinocyte (HaCaT) and lung cancer (A549) cell lines using the MTT test. DPPH• and ABTS•+ spectrophotometric assays and DPPH•- ABTS•+(HP)TLC-bioautographic assays were used to evaluate the antioxidant activity. The main compounds of thyme and oregano EOs were carvacrol and thymol, respectively; piperitenone oxide and γ-terpinene were the most abundant compounds of mint and rosemary EOs, respectively. All EOs showed activity against all Candida species in a range between 760 ± 290 to 3120 ± 0.0 μg/mL. Among the EOs, that of M. suaveolens showed a stronger cytotoxic activity on HaCaT cells. Thyme, oregano and rosemary EOs exhibited important antioxidant activities by ABTS•+ assay compared with trolox.

Antinociceptive and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Teucrium persicum Boiss. Extract in Mice

Background. Therapeutic properties of Teucrium species as antioxidant, antibacterial, analgesic, anticancer, diuretic, and tonic compounds have been proved earlier. Materials and Methods. In this study, the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of the aqueous extract of Teucrium persicum on chronic pain, sciatic nerve ligation as a model of neuropathic pain, and inflammatory models were investigated by formalin, hot-plate, and cotton pellet-induced granuloma models in mice, respectively. T. persicum aqueous extracts (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) were orally gavaged for one week. On 8th day, the time spent and the number of lickings were recorded in formalin test. Morphine and Diclofenac were used intraperitoneally as positive controls. In sciatic nerve ligated animals, as a model of neuropathic pain, doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) of T. persicum extract (TPE) were orally gavaged for 14 consecutive days. The analgesic effect of this extract was examined 14 days after sciatic nerve ligation using the hot-plate test. Controls received saline and Imipramine (40 mg/kg, i.p.) was used a positive control for neuropathic pain model. Results. In the formalin test, a week oral gavage of all TPE doses (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) caused a significant decrease on the licking response compared to the control negative animals. In the hot-plate test, doses of 200 and 400 mg/kg showed significant analgesic effects in sciatic nerve ligated animals. Oral gavaged of TPE revealed significant analgesic effect on chronic pain in both formalin test and sciatic nerve ligated animals. The TPEs did not have any significant anti-inflammatory effects in cotton pellet-induced granuloma formation in mice. Conclusions. These results suggest that the aqueous extract from T. persicum Boiss. produced antinociceptive effects. Its exact mechanism of action still remains indistinct.