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El-Demerdash N, Pan T, Choi O, Saraswati M, Koehler RC, Robertson CL, Savonenko A. Importance of Control Groups for Evaluating Long-Term Behavioral and Cognitive Outcomes of Controlled Cortical Impact in Immature Rats. J Neurotrauma 2023; 40:1197-1215. [PMID: 36416234 PMCID: PMC10259614 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2021.0376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapies are limited for pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI), especially for the very young who can experience long-term consequences to learning, memory, and social behavior. Animal models of pediatric TBI have yielded mechanistic insights, but demonstration of clinically relevant long-term behavioral and/or cognitive deficits has been challenging. We characterized short- and long-term outcomes in a controlled cortical impact (CCI) model of pediatric TBI using a panel of tests between 2 weeks and ∼4 months after injury. Male rats with CCI at postnatal Day (PND) 10 were compared with three control groups: Naïve, Anesthesia, and Craniotomy. Motor testing (PND 25-33), novel object recognition (NOR; PND 40-50), and multiple tasks in water maze (WM; PND 65-100) were followed by social interaction tests (PND 120-140). Anesthesia rats performed the same as Naïve rats in all tasks. TBI rats, when compared with Naïve controls, had functional impairments across most tests studied. The most sensitive cognitive processes affected by TBI included those that required fast one-trial learning (NOR, WM), flexibility of acquired memory traces (reversals in WM), response strategies (WM), or recognition memory in the setting of reciprocal social interactions. Both TBI and Craniotomy groups demonstrated increased rates of decision making across several WM tasks, suggesting disinhibition of motor responses. When the TBI group was compared with the Craniotomy group, however, deficits were detected in a limited number of outcomes. The latter included learning speed (WM), cognitive flexibility (WM), and social recognition memory. Notably, effects of craniotomy, when compared with Naïve controls, spanned across multiple tasks, and in some tasks, could reach the effect sizes observed in TBI. These results highlight the importance of appropriate control groups in pediatric CCI models. In addition, the study demonstrates the high sensitivity of comprehensive cognitive testing to detect long-term effects of early-age craniotomy and TBI and provides a template for future testing of experimental therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagat El-Demerdash
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Tiffany Pan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Olivia Choi
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Manda Saraswati
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Raymond C. Koehler
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Courtney L. Robertson
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Alena Savonenko
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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2
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Marzano LAS, de Castro FLM, Machado CA, de Barros JLVM, Macedo E Cordeiro T, Simões E Silva AC, Teixeira AL, Silva de Miranda A. Potential Role of Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis in Traumatic Brain Injury. Curr Med Chem 2021; 29:3392-3419. [PMID: 34561977 DOI: 10.2174/0929867328666210923143713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a serious cause of disability and death among young and adult individuals, displaying complex pathophysiology including cellular and molecular mechanisms that are not fully elucidated. Many experimental and clinical studies investigated the potential relationship between TBI and the process by which neurons are formed in the brain, known as neurogenesis. Currently, there are no available treatments for TBI's long-term consequences being the search for novel therapeutic targets, a goal of highest scientific and clinical priority. Some studies evaluated the benefits of treatments aimed at improving neurogenesis in TBI. In this scenario, herein, we reviewed current pre-clinical studies that evaluated different approaches to improving neurogenesis after TBI while achieving better cognitive outcomes, which may consist in interesting approaches for future treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Alexandre Santos Marzano
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Investigação Médica (LIIM), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Brazil
| | | | - Caroline Amaral Machado
- Laboratório de Neurobiologia, Departamento de Morfologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, UFMG, Brazil
| | | | - Thiago Macedo E Cordeiro
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Investigação Médica (LIIM), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Brazil
| | - Ana Cristina Simões E Silva
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Investigação Médica (LIIM), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Brazil
| | - Antônio Lúcio Teixeira
- Neuropsychiatry Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, United States
| | - Aline Silva de Miranda
- Laboratório Interdisciplinar de Investigação Médica (LIIM), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Brazil
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3
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Song S, Kong X, Borlongan C, Sava V, Sanchez-Ramos J. Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor Enhances Brain Repair Following Traumatic Brain Injury Without Requiring Activation of Cannabinoid Receptors. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res 2021; 6:48-57. [PMID: 33614952 PMCID: PMC7891202 DOI: 10.1089/can.2019.0090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI) with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) has been shown to enhance brain repair by direct neurotrophic actions on neural cells and by modulating the inflammatory response. Administration of cannabinoids after TBI has also been reported to enhance brain repair by similar mechanisms. Objectives: The primary objective of this study was to test the hypothesis that G-CSF mediates brain repair by interacting with the endocannabinoid system. Methods and Results: (i) Mice that underwent controlled cortical impact (CCI) were treated with G-CSF for 3 days either alone or in the presence of selective cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1-R) or cannabinoid receptor 2 (CB2-R) agonists and antagonists. The trauma resulted in decreased expression of CB1-R and increased expression of CB2-R in the cortex, striatum, and hippocampus. Cortical and striatal levels of the major endocannabinoid ligand, 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol, were also increased by the CCI. Administration of the hematopoietic cytokine, G-CSF, following TBI, resulted in mitigation or reversal of trauma-induced CB1-R downregulation and CB2-R upregulation in the three brain regions. Treatment with CB1-R agonist (WIN55) or CB2-R agonist (HU308) mimicked the effects of G-CSF. (ii) Pharmacological blockade of CB1-R or CB2-R was not effective in preventing G-CSF's mitigation or reversal of trauma-induced alterations in these receptors. Conclusions: These results suggest that cellular and molecular mechanisms that mediate subacute effects of G-CSF do not depend on activation of CB1 or CB2 receptors. Failure of selective CB receptor antagonists to prevent the effects of G-CSF in this model has to be accepted with caution. CB receptor antagonists can interact with other CB and non-CB receptors. Investigation of the role of CB receptors in this TBI model will require studies with CB1-R and in CB2-R knockout mice to avoid nonspecific interaction of CB receptor agents with other receptors.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Arachidonic Acids/metabolism
- Arachidonic Acids/physiology
- Brain/metabolism
- Brain Injuries, Traumatic/drug therapy
- Brain Injuries, Traumatic/etiology
- Brain Injuries, Traumatic/metabolism
- Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists/pharmacology
- Cannabinoid Receptor Agonists/therapeutic use
- Cannabinoid Receptor Antagonists/pharmacology
- Cannabinoid Receptor Antagonists/therapeutic use
- Disease Models, Animal
- Endocannabinoids/metabolism
- Endocannabinoids/physiology
- Glycerides/metabolism
- Glycerides/physiology
- Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor/pharmacology
- Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor/therapeutic use
- Male
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases/metabolism
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB1/metabolism
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/genetics
- Receptor, Cannabinoid, CB2/metabolism
- Receptors, Cannabinoid/genetics
- Receptors, Cannabinoid/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Song
- James Haley VA Medical Center, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurology and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | | | - Cesar Borlongan
- James Haley VA Medical Center, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Vasyl Sava
- James Haley VA Medical Center, Tampa, Florida, USA
- Department of Neurology and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
| | - Juan Sanchez-Ramos
- Department of Neurology and University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
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4
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Macheda T, Roberts KN, Morganti JM, Braun DJ, Bachstetter AD. Optimization and validation of a modified radial-arm water maze protocol using a murine model of mild closed head traumatic brain injury. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0232862. [PMID: 32810143 PMCID: PMC7433858 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive impairments can be a significant problem after a traumatic brain injury (TBI), which affects millions worldwide each year. There is a need for establish reproducible cognitive assays in rodents to better understand disease mechanisms and to develop therapeutic interventions towards treating TBI-induced impairments. Our goal was to validate and standardize the radial arm water maze (RAWM) test as an assay to screen for cognitive impairments caused by TBI. RAWM is a visuo-spatial learning test, originally designed for use with rats, and later adapted for mice. The present study investigates whether test procedures, such us the presence of extra-maze cues influences learning and memory performance. C57BL/6 mice were tested in an 8-arm RAWM using a four-day protocol. We demonstrated that two days of training, exposing the mice to extra-maze cues and a visible platform, influenced learning and memory performance. Mice that did not receive training performed poorer compared to mice trained. To further validate our RAWM protocol, we used scopolamine. We, also, demonstrated that a single mild closed head injury (CHI) caused deficits in this task at two weeks post-CHI. Our data supported the use of 7 trials per day and a spaced training protocol as key factor to unmask memory impairment following CHI. Here, we provide a detailed standard operating procedure for RAWM test, which can be applied to a variety of mouse models including neurodegenerative diseases and pathology, as well as when pharmacological approaches are used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Macheda
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Kelly N. Roberts
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Josh M. Morganti
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - David J. Braun
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
| | - Adam D. Bachstetter
- Spinal Cord & Brain Injury Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- Sanders-Brown Center on Aging, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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5
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Zhang Y, Ma L, Ren C, Liu K, Tian X, Wu D, Ding Y, Li J, Borlongan CV, Ji X. Immediate remote ischemic postconditioning reduces cerebral damage in ischemic stroke mice by enhancing leptomeningeal collateral circulation. J Cell Physiol 2018; 234:12637-12645. [PMID: 30536714 PMCID: PMC6590306 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.27858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Remote ischemic postconditioning (RIPC) is a promising neuroprotective strategy for ischemic stroke. Here, we employed a focal ischemic stroke mouse model to test the hypothesis that poststroke collateral circulation as a potent mechanism of action underlying the therapeutic effects of immediate RIPC. During reperfusion of cerebral ischemia, the mice were randomly assigned to receive RIPC, granulocyte colony‐stimulating factor (G‐CSF) as a positive control, or no treatment. At 24 hr, we found RIPC and G‐CSF increased monocytes/macrophages in the dorsal brain surface and in the spleen, coupled with enhanced leptomeningeal collateral flow compared with nontreatment group. Blood monocytes depletion by 5‐fluorouracil (5‐FU) significantly limited the neuroprotection of RIPC or G‐CSF treatment. The protein expression of proangiogenic factors such as Ang‐2 was increased by ischemia, but treatment with either RIPC or G‐CSF showed no further upregulation. Thus, immediate RIPC confers neuroprotection, in part, by enhancing leptomeningeal collateral circulation in a mouse model of ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypoxia Conditioning Translational Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Longhui Ma
- Department of Neurobiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Changhong Ren
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypoxia Conditioning Translational Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Kaiyin Liu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Xin Tian
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypoxia Conditioning Translational Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Di Wu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypoxia Conditioning Translational Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuchuan Ding
- Department of Neurosurgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Junfa Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Cesar V Borlongan
- Department of Neurosurgery and Brain Repair, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida
| | - Xunming Ji
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Hypoxia Conditioning Translational Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Center of Stroke, Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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6
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Gupta V, Yull F, Khabele D. Bipolar Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Ovarian Cancer as Targets for Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2018. [PMID: 30274280 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10100366] [] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer, a rare but fatal disease, has been a challenging area in the field of gynecological cancer. Ovarian cancer is characterized by peritoneal metastasis, which is facilitated by a cross-talk between tumor cells and other cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In epithelial ovarian cancer, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) constitute over 50% of cells in the peritoneal TME and malignant ascites, and are potential targets for therapy. Here, we review the bipolar nature of TAMs and the evolving strategies to target TAMs in ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijayalaxmi Gupta
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
| | - Fiona Yull
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
- Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
| | - Dineo Khabele
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
- The University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
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7
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Bipolar Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Ovarian Cancer as Targets for Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2018; 10:cancers10100366. [PMID: 30274280 PMCID: PMC6210537 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10100366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 09/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer, a rare but fatal disease, has been a challenging area in the field of gynecological cancer. Ovarian cancer is characterized by peritoneal metastasis, which is facilitated by a cross-talk between tumor cells and other cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In epithelial ovarian cancer, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) constitute over 50% of cells in the peritoneal TME and malignant ascites, and are potential targets for therapy. Here, we review the bipolar nature of TAMs and the evolving strategies to target TAMs in ovarian cancer.
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8
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Gupta V, Yull F, Khabele D. Bipolar Tumor-Associated Macrophages in Ovarian Cancer as Targets for Therapy. Cancers (Basel) 2018. [PMID: 30274280 DOI: 10.3390/cancers10100366]+[] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ovarian cancer, a rare but fatal disease, has been a challenging area in the field of gynecological cancer. Ovarian cancer is characterized by peritoneal metastasis, which is facilitated by a cross-talk between tumor cells and other cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In epithelial ovarian cancer, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) constitute over 50% of cells in the peritoneal TME and malignant ascites, and are potential targets for therapy. Here, we review the bipolar nature of TAMs and the evolving strategies to target TAMs in ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijayalaxmi Gupta
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
| | - Fiona Yull
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
- Vanderbilt-Ingram Cancer Center, Nashville, TN 37232, USA.
| | - Dineo Khabele
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
- The University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA.
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9
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Abe N, Choudhury ME, Watanabe M, Kawasaki S, Nishihara T, Yano H, Matsumoto S, Kunieda T, Kumon Y, Yorozuya T, Tanaka J. Comparison of the detrimental features of microglia and infiltrated macrophages in traumatic brain injury: A study using a hypnotic bromovalerylurea. Glia 2018; 66:2158-2173. [PMID: 30194744 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Microglia and blood-borne macrophages in injured or diseased brains are difficult to distinguish because they share many common characteristics. However, the identification of microglia-specific markers and the use of flow cytometry have recently made it easy to discriminate these types of cells. In this study, we analyzed the features of blood-borne macrophages, and activated and resting microglia in a rat traumatic brain injury (TBI) model. Oxidative injury was indicated in macrophages and neurons in TBI lesions by the presence of 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG). Generation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) was markedly observed in granulocytes and macrophages, but not in activated or resting microglia. Dihydroethidium staining supported microglia not being the major source of ROS in TBI lesions. Furthermore, macrophages expressed NADPH oxidase 2, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and CD68 at higher levels than microglia. In contrast, microglia expressed transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor α at higher levels than macrophages. A hypnotic, bromovalerylurea (BU), which has anti-inflammatory effects, reduced both glycolysis and mitochondrial oxygen consumption. BU administration inhibited chemokine CCL2 expression, accumulation of monocytes/macrophages, 8-OHdG generation, mitochondrial ROS generation, and proinflammatory cytokine expression, and markedly ameliorated the outcome of the TBI model. Yet, BU did not inhibit microglial activation or expression of TGFβ1 and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1). These results indicate that macrophages are the major aggravating cell type in TBI lesions, in particular during the acute phase. Activated microglia may even play favorable roles. Reduction of cellular energy metabolism in macrophages and suppression of CCL2 expression in injured tissue may lead to amelioration of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoki Abe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan.,Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Mohammed E Choudhury
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Minori Watanabe
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Shun Kawasaki
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan.,Department of Surgery and Palliative Medicine, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Aichi, Japan
| | - Tasuku Nishihara
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Hajime Yano
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Shirabe Matsumoto
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Takehiro Kunieda
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kumon
- Department of Neurosurgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Yorozuya
- Department of Anesthesia and Perioperative Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Junya Tanaka
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
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