1
|
Cognitive Dysfunction, an Increasingly Valued Long-Term Impairment in Acromegaly. J Clin Med 2023; 12:jcm12062283. [PMID: 36983284 PMCID: PMC10058029 DOI: 10.3390/jcm12062283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Acromegaly is a chronic disease caused by the overproduction of growth hormone (GH) and accompanying insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), which is often caused by GH-secreting pituitary adenomas. In addition to its somatic burden, a growing number of studies have found that patients suffering from acromegaly exhibit psychosocial and personality changes. Over the past 70 years, there has been increasing interest in the cognitive impairment and neuropsychological issues of patients with acromegaly, and a variety of neuropsychological and neurophysiological tests have been used to measure cognitive changes in patients. The impact of disease progression status, treatment modalities, and various comorbidities on cognitive function and the mechanisms of cognitive impairment in patients with acromegaly are therefore outlined in this review. Multidisciplinary assessment has important implications for the management of acromegaly, particularly in relation to cognitive function. Here, we summarize the relevant literature concerning cognitive-behavioral research on acromegaly to demonstrate the impact of long-term impairment caused by GH and IGF-1 on the cognitive behavior of patients.
Collapse
|
2
|
Fritz EM, Pierre A, De Bundel D, Singewald N. Ghrelin receptor agonist MK0677 and overnight fasting do not rescue deficient fear extinction in 129S1/SvImJ mice. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1094948. [PMID: 36846243 PMCID: PMC9947350 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1094948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The hunger hormone ghrelin has been implicated in the modulation of anxiety- and fear-related behaviors in rodents and humans, while its dysregulation may be associated with psychiatric illness. Along these lines, the ghrelin system has been suggested as a potential target to facilitate fear extinction, which is the main mechanism underlying cognitive behavioral therapy. So far, this hypothesis has not been tested in individuals that have difficulties to extinguish fear. Thus, we investigated pharmacological (ghrelin receptor agonist MK0677) and non-pharmacological (overnight fasting) strategies to target the ghrelin system in the 129S1/SvImJ (S1) mouse strain, which models the endophenotype of impaired fear extinction that has been associated with treatment resistance in anxiety and PTSD patients. MK0677 induced food intake and overnight fasting increased plasma ghrelin levels in S1 mice, suggesting that the ghrelin system is responsive in the S1 strain. However, neither systemic administration of MK0677 nor overnight fasting had an effect on fear extinction in S1 mice. Similarly, our groups previously reported that both interventions did not attenuate fear in extinction-competent C57BL/6J mice. In summary, our findings are in contrast to several studies reporting beneficial effects of GHSR agonism and overnight fasting on fear- and anxiety-related behaviors in rodents. Rather, our data agree with accumulating evidence of divergent behavioral effects of ghrelin system activation and underscore the hypothesis that potential benefits of targeting the ghrelin system in fear extinction may be dependent on factors (e.g., previous stress exposure) that are not yet fully understood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Maria Fritz
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy and CMBI, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Anouk Pierre
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Research Group Experimental Pharmacology, Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Dimitri De Bundel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Research Group Experimental Pharmacology, Center for Neurosciences (C4N), Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Singewald
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Institute of Pharmacy and CMBI, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ghrelin system in Alzheimer's disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2023; 78:102655. [PMID: 36527939 PMCID: PMC10395051 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2022.102655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia in seniors. Current efforts to understand the etiopathogenesis of this neurodegenerative disorder have brought forth questions about systemic factors in the development of AD. Ghrelin is a brain-gut peptide that is activated by ghrelin O-acyltransferase (GOAT) and signals via its receptor, growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR). With increasing recognition of the neurotropic effects of ghrelin, the role of ghrelin system deregulation in the development of AD has been accentuated in recent years. In this review, we summarized recent research progress regarding the mechanisms of ghrelin signaling dysregulation and its contribution to AD brain pathology. In addition, we also discussed the therapeutic potential of strategies targeting ghrelin signaling for the treatment of this neurological disease.
Collapse
|
4
|
Tian J, Du E, Jia K, Wang T, Guo L, Zigman JM, Du H. Elevated Ghrelin Promotes Hippocampal Ghrelin Receptor Defects in Humanized Amyloid-β Knockin Mice During Aging. J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 96:1579-1592. [PMID: 38007666 PMCID: PMC10841720 DOI: 10.3233/jad-231002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Emerging evidence has revealed that dysregulation of the hormone ghrelin and its receptor, growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR), contributes to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Specifically, defective GHSR function and resultant hippocampal ghrelin resistance are linked to hippocampal synaptic injury in AD paradigms. Also, AD patients exhibit elevated ghrelin activation. However, the detailed molecular mechanisms of hippocampal GHSR dysfunction and the relevance of ghrelin elevation to hippocampal ghrelin resistance in AD-relevant pathological settings are not fully understood. OBJECTIVE In the current study, we employed a recently established mouse line of AD risk [humanized amyloid beta knockin (hAβ KI mice), also referred to as a mouse model of late-onset AD in previous literature] to further define the role of ghrelin system dysregulation in the development of AD. METHODS We employed multidisciplinary techniques to determine the change of plasma ghrelin and the functional status of GHSR in hAβ KI mice as well as primary neuron cultures. RESULTS We observed concurrent plasma ghrelin elevation and hippocampal GHSR desensitization with disease progression. Further examination excluded the possibility that ghrelin elevation is a compensatory change in response to GHSR dysfunction. In contrast, further in vitro and in vivo results show that agonist-mediated overstimulation potentiates GHSR desensitization through enhanced GHSR internalization. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that circulating ghrelin elevation is a pathological event underlying hippocampal GHSR dysfunction, culminating in hippocampal ghrelin resistance and resultant synaptic injury in late-onset AD-related settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Tian
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Eric Du
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
- Blue Valley West High School, Overland Park, KS, USA
| | - Kun Jia
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Tienju Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Lan Guo
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
| | - Jeffrey M. Zigman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Center for Hypothalamic Research, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Heng Du
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, USA
- Alzheimer’s disease Research Center (ADRC), Department of Neurology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Xia ZD, Ma RX, Wen JF, Zhai YF, Wang YQ, Wang FY, Liu D, Zhao XL, Sun B, Jia P, Zheng XH. Pathogenesis, Animal Models, and Drug Discovery of Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 94:1265-1301. [PMID: 37424469 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia, is a chronic neurodegenerative disease induced by multiple factors. The high incidence and the aging of the global population make it a growing global health concern with huge implications for individuals and society. The clinical manifestations are progressive cognitive dysfunction and lack of behavioral ability, which not only seriously affect the health and quality of life of the elderly, but also bring a heavy burden to the family and society. Unfortunately, almost all the drugs targeting the classical pathogenesis have not achieved satisfactory clinical effects in the past two decades. Therefore, the present review provides more novel ideas on the complex pathophysiological mechanisms of AD, including classical pathogenesis and a variety of possible pathogenesis that have been proposed in recent years. It will be helpful to find out the key target and the effect pathway of potential drugs and mechanisms for the prevention and treatment of AD. In addition, the common animal models in AD research are outlined and we examine their prospect for the future. Finally, Phase I, II, III, and IV randomized clinical trials or on the market of drugs for AD treatment were searched in online databases (Drug Bank Online 5.0, the U.S. National Library of Medicine, and Alzforum). Therefore, this review may also provide useful information in the research and development of new AD-based drugs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zhao-Di Xia
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Ruo-Xin Ma
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Jin-Feng Wen
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Yu-Fei Zhai
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Yu-Qi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Feng-Yun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Dan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Xiao-Long Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Bao Sun
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
- Department of Pharmacy, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Pu Jia
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| | - Xiao-Hui Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, Xi'an, PR China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kim JW, Byun MS, Yi D, Lee JH, Sung K, Han D, Byeon G, Kim MJ, Jung JH, Chang YY, Jung G, Lee JY, Lee YS, Kim YK, Kang KM, Sohn CH, Lee DY. Association of low meal frequency with decreased in vivo Alzheimer’s pathology. iScience 2022; 25:105422. [PMID: 36388975 PMCID: PMC9646955 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.105422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the association between meal frequency and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) in humans. We tested the hypothesis that low meal frequency (LMF) is associated with reduced in vivo AD pathology in human brain, and additionally investigated the mediation of serum ghrelin, a hunger-related hormone, for the association. A total of 411 non-demented older adults were systematically interviewed to identify their dietary patterns including meal frequency and underwent multi-modal neuroimaging for cerebral beta-amyloid (Aβ) and tau deposition, glucose metabolism, and cerebrovascular injury. LMF (less than three meals a day) was significantly associated with lower Aβ deposition compared to high meal frequency (HMF). In addition, both LMF and reduced Aβ deposition were significantly related to elevated serum ghrelin. Our findings suggest that LMF may be related to the lower risk of AD through reduced brain amyloid deposition. Additionally, ghrelin appears mediate the association between LMF and lower amyloid deposition. Low meal frequency (LMF) relates to lower brain amyloid deposition in human Ghrelin mediates the association between LMF and lower amyloid deposition LMF may decrease the risk of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) by reducing amyloid deposition This finding may be a clue for food intake-based preventive strategy against AD
Collapse
|
7
|
Reich N, Hölscher C. Beyond Appetite: Acylated Ghrelin As A Learning, Memory and Fear Behavior-modulating Hormone. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2022; 143:104952. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
8
|
Pupyshev AB, Belichenko VM, Tenditnik MV, Bashirzade AA, Dubrovina NI, Ovsyukova MV, Akopyan AA, Fedoseeva LA, Korolenko TA, Amstislavskaya TG, Tikhonova MA. Combined induction of mTOR-dependent and mTOR-independent pathways of autophagy activation as an experimental therapy for Alzheimer's disease-like pathology in a mouse model. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2022; 217:173406. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2022.173406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
9
|
A review of glucoregulatory hormones potentially applicable to the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease: mechanism and brain delivery. JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL INVESTIGATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40005-022-00566-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
10
|
Sassi M, Morgan AH, Davies JS. Ghrelin Acylation-A Post-Translational Tuning Mechanism Regulating Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis. Cells 2022; 11:cells11050765. [PMID: 35269387 PMCID: PMC8909677 DOI: 10.3390/cells11050765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult hippocampal neurogenesis—the generation of new functional neurones in the adult brain—is impaired in aging and many neurodegenerative disorders. We recently showed that the acylated version of the gut hormone ghrelin (acyl-ghrelin) stimulates adult hippocampal neurogenesis while the unacylated form of ghrelin inhibits it, thus demonstrating a previously unknown function of unacyl-ghrelin in modulating hippocampal plasticity. Analysis of plasma samples from Parkinson’s disease patients with dementia demonstrated a reduced acyl-ghrelin:unacyl-ghrelin ratio compared to both healthy controls and cognitively intact Parkinson’s disease patients. These data, from mouse and human studies, suggest that restoring acyl-ghrelin signalling may promote the activation of pathways to support memory function. In this short review, we discuss the evidence for ghrelin’s role in regulating adult hippocampal neurogenesis and the enzymes involved in ghrelin acylation and de-acylation as targets to treat mood-related disorders and dementia.
Collapse
|
11
|
Giorgioni G, Del Bello F, Quaglia W, Botticelli L, Cifani C, Micioni Di Bonaventura E, Micioni Di Bonaventura MV, Piergentili A. Advances in the Development of Nonpeptide Small Molecules Targeting Ghrelin Receptor. J Med Chem 2022; 65:3098-3118. [PMID: 35157454 PMCID: PMC8883476 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c02191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is an octanoylated peptide acting by the activation of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor, namely, GHS-R1a. The involvement of ghrelin in several physiological processes, including stimulation of food intake, gastric emptying, body energy balance, glucose homeostasis, reduction of insulin secretion, and lipogenesis validates the considerable interest in GHS-R1a as a promising target for the treatment of numerous disorders. Over the years, several GHS-R1a ligands have been identified and some of them have been extensively studied in clinical trials. The recently resolved structures of GHS-R1a bound to ghrelin or potent ligands have provided useful information for the design of new GHS-R1a drugs. This perspective is focused on the development of recent nonpeptide small molecules acting as GHS-R1a agonists, antagonists, and inverse agonists, bearing classical or new molecular scaffolds, as well as on radiolabeled GHS-R1a ligands developed for imaging. Moreover, the pharmacological effects of the most studied ligands have been discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gianfabio Giorgioni
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Fabio Del Bello
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Wilma Quaglia
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Luca Botticelli
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Carlo Cifani
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - E Micioni Di Bonaventura
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - M V Micioni Di Bonaventura
- School of Pharmacy, Pharmacology Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Alessandro Piergentili
- School of Pharmacy, Medicinal Chemistry Unit, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Sohrabi M, Sahu B, Kaur H, Hasler WA, Prakash A, Combs CK. Gastrointestinal Changes and Alzheimer's Disease. Curr Alzheimer Res 2022; 19:335-350. [PMID: 35718965 PMCID: PMC10497313 DOI: 10.2174/1567205019666220617121255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a well-described mechanism of communication between the brain and gastrointestinal system in which both organs influence the function of the other. This bi-directional communication suggests that disease in either organ may affect function in the other. OBJECTIVE To assess whether the evidence supports gastrointestinal system inflammatory or degenerative pathophysiology as a characteristic of Alzheimer's disease (AD). METHODS A review of both rodent and human studies implicating gastrointestinal changes in AD was performed. RESULTS Numerous studies indicate that AD changes are not unique to the brain but also occur at various levels of the gastrointestinal tract involving both immune and neuronal changes. In addition, it appears that numerous conditions and diseases affecting regions of the tract may communicate to the brain to influence disease. CONCLUSION Gastrointestinal changes represent an overlooked aspect of AD, representing a more system influence of this disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mona Sohrabi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202-9037, USA
| | - Bijayani Sahu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202-9037, USA
| | - Harpreet Kaur
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202-9037, USA
| | - Wendie A Hasler
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202-9037, USA
| | - Atish Prakash
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202-9037, USA
| | - Colin K Combs
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, ND 58202-9037, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Traikapi A, Konstantinou N. Gamma Oscillations in Alzheimer’s Disease and Their Potential Therapeutic Role. Front Syst Neurosci 2021; 15:782399. [PMID: 34966263 PMCID: PMC8710538 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2021.782399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite decades of research, Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) remains a lethal neurodegenerative disorder for which there are no effective treatments. This review examines the latest evidence of a novel and newly introduced perspective, which focuses on the restoration of gamma oscillations and investigates their potential role in the treatment of AD. Gamma brain activity (∼25–100 Hz) has been well-known for its role in cognitive function, including memory, and it is fundamental for healthy brain activity and intra-brain communication. Aberrant gamma oscillations have been observed in both mice AD models and human AD patients. A recent line of work demonstrated that gamma entrainment, through auditory and visual sensory stimulation, can effectively attenuate AD pathology and improve cognitive function in mice models of the disease. The first evidence from AD patients indicate that gamma entrainment therapy can reduce loss of functional connectivity and brain atrophy, improve cognitive function, and ameliorate several pathological markers of the disease. Even though research is still in its infancy, evidence suggests that gamma-based therapy may have a disease-modifying effect and has signified a new and promising era in AD research.
Collapse
|
14
|
Turner DA. Contrasting Metabolic Insufficiency in Aging and Dementia. Aging Dis 2021; 12:1081-1096. [PMID: 34221551 PMCID: PMC8219502 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2021.0104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic insufficiency and neuronal dysfunction occur in normal aging but is exaggerated in dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Metabolic insufficiency includes factors important for both substrate supply and utilization in the brain. Metabolic insufficiency occurs through a number of serial mechanisms, particularly changes in cerebrovascular supply through blood vessel abnormalities (ie, small and large vessel vasculopathy, stroke), alterations in neurovascular coupling providing dynamic blood flow supply in relation to neuronal demand, abnormalities in blood brain barrier including decreased glucose and amino acid transport, altered glymphatic flow in terms of substrate supply across the extracellular space to cells and drainage into CSF of metabolites, impaired transport into cells, and abnormal intracellular metabolism with more reliance on glycolysis and less on mitochondrial function. Recent studies have confirmed abnormal neurovascular coupling in a mouse model of AD in response to metabolic challenges, but the supply chain from the vascular system into neurons is disrupted much earlier in dementia than in equivalently aged individuals, contributing to the progressive neuronal degeneration and cognitive dysfunction associated with dementia. We discuss several metabolic treatment approaches, but these depend on characterizing patients as to who would benefit the most. Surrogate biomarkers of metabolism are being developed to include dynamic estimates of neuronal demand, sufficiency of neurovascular coupling, and glymphatic flow to supplement traditional static measurements. These surrogate biomarkers could be used to gauge efficacy of metabolic treatments in slowing down or modifying dementia time course.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dennis A Turner
- Neurosurgery, Neurobiology, and Biomedical Engineering, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
- Research and Surgery Services, Durham Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Durham, NC 27705, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
A Negative Energy Balance Is Associated with Metabolic Dysfunctions in the Hypothalamus of a Humanized Preclinical Model of Alzheimer's Disease, the 5XFAD Mouse. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22105365. [PMID: 34065168 PMCID: PMC8161294 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22105365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence links metabolic disorders with neurodegenerative processes including Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Late AD is associated with amyloid (Aβ) plaque accumulation, neuroinflammation, and central insulin resistance. Here, a humanized AD model, the 5xFAD mouse model, was used to further explore food intake, energy expenditure, neuroinflammation, and neuroendocrine signaling in the hypothalamus. Experiments were performed on 6-month-old male and female full transgenic (Tg5xFAD/5xFAD), heterozygous (Tg5xFAD/-), and non-transgenic (Non-Tg) littermates. Although histological analysis showed absence of Aβ plaques in the hypothalamus of 5xFAD mice, this brain region displayed increased protein levels of GFAP and IBA1 in both Tg5xFAD/- and Tg5xFAD/5xFAD mice and increased expression of IL-1β in Tg5xFAD/5xFAD mice, suggesting neuroinflammation. This condition was accompanied by decreased body weight, food intake, and energy expenditure in both Tg5xFAD/- and Tg5xFAD/5xFAD mice. Negative energy balance was associated with altered circulating levels of insulin, GLP-1, GIP, ghrelin, and resistin; decreased insulin and leptin hypothalamic signaling; dysregulation in main metabolic sensors (phosphorylated IRS1, STAT5, AMPK, mTOR, ERK2); and neuropeptides controlling energy balance (NPY, AgRP, orexin, MCH). These results suggest that glial activation and metabolic dysfunctions in the hypothalamus of a mouse model of AD likely result in negative energy balance, which may contribute to AD pathogenesis development.
Collapse
|
16
|
Reich N, Hölscher C. Acylated Ghrelin as a Multi-Targeted Therapy for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:614828. [PMID: 33381011 PMCID: PMC7767977 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.614828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Much thought has been given to the impact of Amyloid Beta, Tau and Alpha-Synuclein in the development of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), yet the clinical failures of the recent decades indicate that there are further pathological mechanisms at work. Indeed, besides amyloids, AD and PD are characterized by the culminative interplay of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and hyperfission, defective autophagy and mitophagy, systemic inflammation, BBB and vascular damage, demyelination, cerebral insulin resistance, the loss of dopamine production in PD, impaired neurogenesis and, of course, widespread axonal, synaptic and neuronal degeneration that leads to cognitive and motor impediments. Interestingly, the acylated form of the hormone ghrelin has shown the potential to ameliorate the latter pathologic changes, although some studies indicate a few complications that need to be considered in the long-term administration of the hormone. As such, this review will illustrate the wide-ranging neuroprotective properties of acylated ghrelin and critically evaluate the hormone's therapeutic benefits for the treatment of AD and PD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Niklas Reich
- Biomedical & Life Sciences Division, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Christian Hölscher
- Neurology Department, A Second Hospital, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, China.,Research and Experimental Center, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Xiao X, Bi M, Jiao Q, Chen X, Du X, Jiang H. A new understanding of GHSR1a--independent of ghrelin activation. Ageing Res Rev 2020; 64:101187. [PMID: 33007437 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2020.101187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHSR1a), a member of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family, is a functional receptor of ghrelin. The expression levels and activities of GHSR1a are affected by various factors. In past years, it has been found that the ghrelin-GHSR1a system can perform biological functions such as anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis, and anti-oxidative stress. In addition to mediating the effect of ghrelin, GHSR1a also has abnormally high constitutive activity; that is, it can still transmit intracellular signals without activation of the ghrelin ligand. This constitutive activity affects brain functions, growth and development of the body; therefore, it has profound impacts on neurodegenerative diseases and some other age-related diseases. In addition, GHSR1a can also form homodimers or heterodimers with other GPCRs, affecting the release of neurotransmitters, appetite regulation, cell proliferation and insulin release. Therefore, further understanding of the constitutive activities and dimerization of GHSR1a will enable us to better clarify the characteristics of GHSR1a and provide more therapeutic targets for drug development. Here, we focus on the roles of GHSR1a in various biological functions and provide a comprehensive summary of the current research on GHSR1a to provide broader therapeutic prospects for age-related disease treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xue Xiao
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Mingxia Bi
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Qian Jiao
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xixun Du
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China.
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Physiology, Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenesis and Prevention of Neurological Disorders and State Key Disciplines: Physiology, School of Basic Medicine, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Tian J, Wang T, Wang Q, Guo L, Du H. MK0677, a Ghrelin Mimetic, Improves Neurogenesis but Fails to Prevent Hippocampal Lesions in a Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease Pathology. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 72:467-478. [PMID: 31594237 DOI: 10.3233/jad-190779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Hippocampal lesions including synaptic injury, neuroinflammation, and impaired neurogenesis are featured pathology closely associated with neuronal stress and cognitive impairment in Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previous studies suggest that ghrelin and its receptor, growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1α (GHSR1α), promote hippocampal synaptic function and neurogenesis. GHSR1α activation thus holds the potential to be a therapeutic avenue for the treatment of hippocampal pathology in AD; however, a comprehensive study on the preventive effect of MK0677 on hippocampal lesions in AD-related conditions is still lacking. In this study, we treated a transgenic mouse model of AD-like amyloidosis (5xFAD mice) at the asymptomatic stage with MK0677, a potent ghrelin mimetic. We found that MK0677 fostered hippocampal neurogenesis in 5xFAD mice but observed little preventive function with regards to the development of hippocampal amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition, synaptic loss, microglial activation, or cognitive impairment. Furthermore, MK0677 at a dose of 3 mg/kg significantly increased 5xFAD mouse mortality. Despite enhanced hippocampal neurogenesis, MK0677 treatment has little beneficial effect to prevent hippocampal lesions or cognitive deficits against Aβ toxicity. This study, together with a failed large-scale clinical trial, suggests the ineffectiveness of MK0677 alone for AD prevention and treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Tian
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
| | - Tienju Wang
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA.,Department of Neurology, Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, China
| | - Lan Guo
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
| | - Heng Du
- Department of Biological Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Robison LS, Gannon OJ, Thomas MA, Salinero AE, Abi-Ghanem C, Poitelon Y, Belin S, Zuloaga KL. Role of sex and high-fat diet in metabolic and hypothalamic disturbances in the 3xTg-AD mouse model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:285. [PMID: 32993686 PMCID: PMC7526387 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-01956-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hypothalamic dysfunction occurs early in the clinical course of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), likely contributing to disturbances in feeding behavior and metabolic function that are often observed years prior to the onset of cognitive symptoms. Late-life weight loss and low BMI are associated with increased risk of dementia and faster progression of disease. However, high-fat diet and metabolic disease (e.g., obesity, type 2 diabetes), particularly in mid-life, are associated with increased risk of AD, as well as exacerbated AD pathology and behavioral deficits in animal models. In the current study, we explored possible relationships between hypothalamic function, diet/metabolic status, and AD. Considering the sex bias in AD, with women representing two-thirds of AD patients, we sought to determine whether these relationships vary by sex. Methods WT and 3xTg-AD male and female mice were fed a control (10% fat) or high-fat (HF 60% fat) diet from ~ 3–7 months of age, then tested for metabolic and hypothalamic disturbances. Results On control diet, male 3xTg-AD mice displayed decreased body weight, reduced fat mass, hypoleptinemia, and mild systemic inflammation, as well as increased expression of gliosis- and inflammation-related genes in the hypothalamus (Iba1, GFAP, TNF-α, IL-1β). In contrast, female 3xTg-AD mice on control diet displayed metabolic disturbances opposite that of 3xTg-AD males (increased body and fat mass, impaired glucose tolerance). HF diet resulted in expected metabolic alterations across groups (increased body and fat mass; glucose intolerance; increased plasma insulin and leptin, decreased ghrelin; nonalcoholic fatty liver disease-related pathology). HF diet resulted in the greatest weight gain, adiposity, and glucose intolerance in 3xTg-AD females, which were associated with markedly increased hypothalamic expression of GFAP and IL-1β, as well as GFAP labeling in several hypothalamic nuclei that regulate energy balance. In contrast, HF diet increased diabetes markers and systemic inflammation preferentially in AD males but did not exacerbate hypothalamic inflammation in this group. Conclusions These findings provide further evidence for the roles of hypothalamic and metabolic dysfunction in AD, which in the 3xTg-AD mouse model appears to be dependent on both sex and diet.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa S Robison
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Olivia J Gannon
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Melissa A Thomas
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Abigail E Salinero
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Charly Abi-Ghanem
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Yannick Poitelon
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Sophie Belin
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA
| | - Kristen L Zuloaga
- Department of Neuroscience & Experimental Therapeutics, Albany Medical College, 47 New Scotland Avenue, MC-136, Albany, NY, 12208, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Kim S, Nam Y, Shin SJ, Park YH, Jeon SG, Kim JI, Kim MJ, Moon M. The Potential Roles of Ghrelin in Metabolic Syndrome and Secondary Symptoms of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:583097. [PMID: 33071750 PMCID: PMC7543232 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.583097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the major causative factors of Alzheimer's disease (AD) are the accumulation of amyloid β and hyperphosphorylated tau, AD can also be caused by metabolic dysfunction. The major clinical symptom of AD is cognitive dysfunction. However, AD is also accompanied by various secondary symptoms such as depression, sleep-wake disturbances, and abnormal eating behaviors. Interestingly, the orexigenic hormone ghrelin has been suggested to have beneficial effects on AD-related metabolic syndrome and secondary symptoms. Ghrelin improves lipid distribution and alters insulin sensitivity, effects that are hypothesized to delay the progression of AD. Furthermore, ghrelin can relieve depression by enhancing the secretion of hormones such as serotonin, noradrenaline, and orexin. Moreover, ghrelin can upregulate the expression of neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor and modulate the release of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin 1β. Ghrelin alleviates sleep-wake disturbances by increasing the levels of melatonin, melanin-concentrating hormone. Ghrelin reduces the risk of abnormal eating behaviors by increasing neuropeptide Y and γ-aminobutyric acid. In addition, ghrelin increases food intake by inhibiting fatty acid biosynthesis. However, despite the numerous studies on the role of ghrelin in the AD-related pathology and metabolic disorders, there are only a few studies that investigate the effects of ghrelin on secondary symptoms associated with AD. In this mini review, our purpose is to provide the insights of future study by organizing the previous studies for the role of ghrelin in AD-related pathology and metabolic disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sujin Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Yunkwon Nam
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Soo Jung Shin
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Yong Ho Park
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Seong Gak Jeon
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon, South Korea.,Department of Neural Development and Disease, Korea Brain Research Institute (KBRI), Daegu, South Korea
| | - Jin-Il Kim
- Department of Nursing, College of Nursing, Jeju National University, Jeju-si, South Korea
| | - Min-Jeong Kim
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Minho Moon
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Konyang University, Daejeon, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Cunnane SC, Trushina E, Morland C, Prigione A, Casadesus G, Andrews ZB, Beal MF, Bergersen LH, Brinton RD, de la Monte S, Eckert A, Harvey J, Jeggo R, Jhamandas JH, Kann O, la Cour CM, Martin WF, Mithieux G, Moreira PI, Murphy MP, Nave KA, Nuriel T, Oliet SHR, Saudou F, Mattson MP, Swerdlow RH, Millan MJ. Brain energy rescue: an emerging therapeutic concept for neurodegenerative disorders of ageing. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2020; 19:609-633. [PMID: 32709961 PMCID: PMC7948516 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-020-0072-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 399] [Impact Index Per Article: 99.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The brain requires a continuous supply of energy in the form of ATP, most of which is produced from glucose by oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria, complemented by aerobic glycolysis in the cytoplasm. When glucose levels are limited, ketone bodies generated in the liver and lactate derived from exercising skeletal muscle can also become important energy substrates for the brain. In neurodegenerative disorders of ageing, brain glucose metabolism deteriorates in a progressive, region-specific and disease-specific manner - a problem that is best characterized in Alzheimer disease, where it begins presymptomatically. This Review discusses the status and prospects of therapeutic strategies for countering neurodegenerative disorders of ageing by improving, preserving or rescuing brain energetics. The approaches described include restoring oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis, increasing insulin sensitivity, correcting mitochondrial dysfunction, ketone-based interventions, acting via hormones that modulate cerebral energetics, RNA therapeutics and complementary multimodal lifestyle changes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C Cunnane
- Department of Medicine, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada.
- Research Center on Aging, Sherbrooke, QC, Canada.
| | | | - Cecilie Morland
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Alessandro Prigione
- Department of General Pediatrics, Neonatology, and Pediatric Cardiology, University of Dusseldorf, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | - Gemma Casadesus
- Department of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, USA
| | - Zane B Andrews
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - M Flint Beal
- Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Linda H Bergersen
- Department of Anatomy, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | | | | | | | - Jenni Harvey
- Ninewells Hospital, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
- Medical School, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Ross Jeggo
- Centre for Therapeutic Innovation in Neuropsychiatry, Institut de Recherche Servier, Croissy sur Seine, France
| | - Jack H Jhamandas
- Department of Medicine, University of Albeta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
- Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Albeta, Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Oliver Kann
- Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Clothide Mannoury la Cour
- Centre for Therapeutic Innovation in Neuropsychiatry, Institut de Recherche Servier, Croissy sur Seine, France
| | - William F Martin
- Institute of Molecular Evolution, University of Dusseldorf, Dusseldorf, Germany
| | | | - Paula I Moreira
- CNC Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Michael P Murphy
- MRC Mitochondrial Biology Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Klaus-Armin Nave
- Department of Biosciences, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Tal Nuriel
- Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Stéphane H R Oliet
- Neurocentre Magendie, INSERM U1215, Bordeaux, France
- Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Frédéric Saudou
- University of Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
- INSERM U1216, CHU Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble Institute Neurosciences, Grenoble, France
| | - Mark P Mattson
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Mark J Millan
- Centre for Therapeutic Innovation in Neuropsychiatry, Institut de Recherche Servier, Croissy sur Seine, France.
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Tian J, Guo L, Sui S, Driskill C, Phensy A, Wang Q, Gauba E, Zigman JM, Swerdlow RH, Kroener S, Du H. Disrupted hippocampal growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1α interaction with dopamine receptor D1 plays a role in Alzheimer's disease. Sci Transl Med 2020; 11:11/505/eaav6278. [PMID: 31413143 PMCID: PMC6776822 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aav6278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hippocampal lesions are a defining pathology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie hippocampal synaptic injury in AD have not been fully elucidated. Current therapeutic efforts for AD treatment are not effective in correcting hippocampal synaptic deficits. Growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1α (GHSR1α) is critical for hippocampal synaptic physiology. Here, we report that GHSR1α interaction with β-amyloid (Aβ) suppresses GHSR1α activation, leading to compromised GHSR1α regulation of dopamine receptor D1 (DRD1) in the hippocampus from patients with AD. The simultaneous application of the selective GHSR1α agonist MK0677 with the selective DRD1 agonist SKF81297 rescued Ghsr1α function from Aβ inhibition, mitigating hippocampal synaptic injury and improving spatial memory in an AD mouse model. Our data reveal a mechanism of hippocampal vulnerability in AD and suggest that a combined activation of GHSR1α and DRD1 may be a promising approach for treating AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Tian
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
| | - Lan Guo
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
| | - Shaomei Sui
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA.,Department of Neurology, Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250014, China
| | - Christopher Driskill
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
| | - Aarron Phensy
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA.,Department of Neurology, Qianfoshan Hospital, Shandong First Medical University, Jinan, Shandong 250014, China
| | - Esha Gauba
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Zigman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Hypothalamic Research, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Russell H Swerdlow
- Department of Neurology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS 66160, USA
| | - Sven Kroener
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA
| | - Heng Du
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, TX 75080, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Farokhnia M, Portelli J, Lee MR, McDiarmid GR, Munjal V, Abshire KM, Battista JT, Browning BD, Deschaine SL, Akhlaghi F, Leggio L. Effects of exogenous ghrelin administration and ghrelin receptor blockade, in combination with alcohol, on peripheral inflammatory markers in heavy-drinking individuals: Results from two human laboratory studies. Brain Res 2020; 1740:146851. [PMID: 32339499 PMCID: PMC8715722 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The ghrelin system has been garnering interest for its role in different neuropsychiatric disorders, including alcohol use disorder (AUD). Accordingly, targeting the ghrelin system is under investigation as a potential novel therapeutic approach. While alcohol provokes the immune system and inflammatory responses, ghrelin has potent immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. The present study aimed to shed light on the "crosstalk" between ghrelin and inflammation by examining the effects of exogenous ghrelin administration and ghrelin receptor blockade on peripheral inflammatory markers in the context of two human laboratory studies with alcohol administration. Non-treatment-seeking, heavy-drinking individuals with alcohol dependence, the majority of whom were African American males, were enrolled. In the first randomized, crossover, double-blind, placebo-controlled human laboratory study, participants underwent two experimental paradigms - an intravenous alcohol self-administration (IV-ASA) and an intravenous alcohol clamp (IV-AC) - each consisting of two counterbalanced sessions (ghrelin, placebo). A loading dose of intravenous ghrelin (3 mcg/kg) or placebo, followed by a continuous ghrelin (16.9 ng/kg/min) or placebo infusion was administered. In the second dose-escalating, single-blind, placebo-controlled human laboratory phase 1b study, participants were dosed with an oral ghrelin receptor blocker (PF-5190457) and underwent an oral alcohol challenge. Repeated blood samples were collected, and plasma concentrations of the following inflammatory markers were measured: C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin (IL)-6, IL-10, IL-18, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). During the IV-ASA experiment, significant drug × time interaction effects were observed for IL-6 (F3,36 = 3.345, p = 0.030) and IL-10 (F3,53.2 = 4.638, p = 0.006), indicating that ghrelin, compared to placebo, significantly reduced blood concentrations of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-6, while increasing blood concentrations of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. No significant drug × time interaction effects were observed during the IV-AC experiment, possibly because of its much shorter duration and/or smaller sample. Treatment with PF-5190457, compared to placebo, had no significant effect on the inflammatory markers investigated. In conclusion, a supraphysiologic pharmacological challenge with exogenous ghrelin in heavy-drinking individuals produced anti-inflammatory effects in the context of intravenous alcohol administration. On the contrary, ghrelin receptor blockade did not lead to any change in the inflammatory markers included in this study. Mechanistic studies are required to better understand the interaction between ghrelin, alcohol, and inflammatory processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Farokhnia
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States; Center on Compulsive Behaviors, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States; Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jeanelle Portelli
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Mary R Lee
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Gray R McDiarmid
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Vikas Munjal
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Kelly M Abshire
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Jillian T Battista
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Brittney D Browning
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Sara L Deschaine
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Fatemeh Akhlaghi
- Clinical Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, United States
| | - Lorenzo Leggio
- Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology Section, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism Division of Intramural Clinical and Biological Research, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore and Bethesda, MD, United States; Center on Compulsive Behaviors, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States; Medication Development Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States; Center for Alcohol and Addiction Studies, Department of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Fan L, Mao C, Hu X, Zhang S, Yang Z, Hu Z, Sun H, Fan Y, Dong Y, Yang J, Shi C, Xu Y. New Insights Into the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Neurol 2020; 10:1312. [PMID: 31998208 PMCID: PMC6965067 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), a common neurodegenerative disease in the elderly and the most prevalent cause of dementia, is characterized by progressive cognitive impairment. The prevalence of AD continues to increase worldwide, becoming a great healthcare challenge of the twenty-first century. In the more than 110 years since AD was discovered, many related pathogenic mechanisms have been proposed, and the most recognized hypotheses are the amyloid and tau hypotheses. However, almost all clinical trials targeting these mechanisms have not identified any effective methods to treat AD. Scientists are gradually moving away from the simple assumption, as proposed in the original amyloid hypothesis, to new theories of pathogenesis, including gamma oscillations, prion transmission, cerebral vasoconstriction, growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1α (GHSR1α)-mediated mechanism, and infection. To place these findings in context, we first reviewed the neuropathology of AD and further discussed new insights in the pathogenesis of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Liyuan Fan
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Chengyuan Mao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Xinchao Hu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Shuo Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Zhihua Yang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Zhengwei Hu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Huifang Sun
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yu Fan
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China.,Academy of Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yali Dong
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jing Yang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Changhe Shi
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yuming Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Buntwal L, Sassi M, Morgan AH, Andrews ZB, Davies JS. Ghrelin-Mediated Hippocampal Neurogenesis: Implications for Health and Disease. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2019; 30:844-859. [PMID: 31445747 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2019.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
There is a close relationship between cognition and nutritional status, however, the mechanisms underlying this relationship require elucidation. The stomach hormone, ghrelin, which is released during food restriction, provides a link between circulating energy state and adaptive brain function. The maintenance of such homeostatic systems is essential for an organism to thrive and survive, and accumulating evidence points to ghrelin being key in promoting adult hippocampal neurogenesis and memory. Aberrant neurogenesis is linked to cognitive decline in ageing and neurodegeneration. Therefore, identifying endogenous metabolic factors that regulate new adult-born neurone formation is an important objective in understanding the link between nutritional status and central nervous system (CNS) function. Here, we review current developments in our understanding of ghrelin's role in regulating neurogenesis and memory function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luke Buntwal
- Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Swansea University, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Martina Sassi
- Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Swansea University, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Alwena H Morgan
- Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Swansea University, SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Zane B Andrews
- Department of Physiology, Biomedical Discovery Unit, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Jeffrey S Davies
- Molecular Neurobiology, Institute of Life Sciences, School of Medicine, Swansea University, SA2 8PP, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Maletínská L, Popelová A, Železná B, Bencze M, Kuneš J. The impact of anorexigenic peptides in experimental models of Alzheimer's disease pathology. J Endocrinol 2019; 240:R47-R72. [PMID: 30475219 DOI: 10.1530/joe-18-0532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder in the elderly population. Numerous epidemiological and experimental studies have demonstrated that patients who suffer from obesity or type 2 diabetes mellitus have a higher risk of cognitive dysfunction and AD. Several recent studies demonstrated that food intake-lowering (anorexigenic) peptides have the potential to improve metabolic disorders and that they may also potentially be useful in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, the neuroprotective effects of anorexigenic peptides of both peripheral and central origins are discussed. Moreover, the role of leptin as a key modulator of energy homeostasis is discussed in relation to its interaction with anorexigenic peptides and their analogs in AD-like pathology. Although there is no perfect experimental model of human AD pathology, animal studies have already proven that anorexigenic peptides exhibit neuroprotective properties. This phenomenon is extremely important for the potential development of new drugs in view of the aging of the human population and of the significantly increasing incidence of AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lenka Maletínská
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Andrea Popelová
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Blanka Železná
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Bencze
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic
- Institute of Physiology AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Kuneš
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic
- Institute of Physiology AS CR, Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Seminara RS, Jeet C, Biswas S, Kanwal B, Iftikhar W, Sakibuzzaman M, Rutkofsky IH. The Neurocognitive Effects of Ghrelin-induced Signaling on the Hippocampus: A Promising Approach to Alzheimer's Disease. Cureus 2018; 10:e3285. [PMID: 30443455 PMCID: PMC6235652 DOI: 10.7759/cureus.3285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The communication between the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system (CNS) allows for certain peptide hormones to influence neurocognitive function. Ghrelin, also known as the 'hunger hormone,' has the unique ability to enter the CNS and interact with the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R) within the hippocampus. Upon interaction with ghrelin, a conformational change in the receptor causes an increase in transcription factors to foster a wide array of physiologic changes in response to caloric deprivation. With the GHS-R in a relatively high concentration within the hippocampus, ghrelin can promote memory, spatial, learning, and behavioral effects. In fact, ghrelin appears to also have a neuroprotective and neuromodulatory response once active within the hippocampal dentate gyrus. Through the GHS-R, higher levels of ghrelin may alter cognitive circuitry and offer a possible link to the treatment of some pathologies implicated in neurological dysfunction. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is already becoming a significant target for ghrelin neuroreceptor therapy. In such experimental models, ghrelin has been shown to combat this degenerative process by eliciting an ameliorative and regenerative response. Although trials and research are still ongoing, further studies are indicated as early research into this adjuvant therapy is promising. The research team explored the effects of ghrelin by reviewing the downstream signaling modifications of ghrelin's interaction with a specific CNS receptor, the GHS-R. Although the GHS-R is found in multiple locations within the CNS, the team investigated the role of the GHS-R within the hippocampus to focus solely on the neurocognitive implications of ghrelin. The team noted which signaling pathways in particular that ghrelin initiated and used this approach to determine whether ghrelin may have any therapeutic benefits. The team explored the possible therapeutic indications of ghrelin by looking at studies conducted with a specific neurodegenerative disease known to target the hippocampus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert S Seminara
- Neuroscience, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Charan Jeet
- Research, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Sharmi Biswas
- Pediatrics, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Bushra Kanwal
- Department of Research, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Waleed Iftikhar
- Internal Medicine, CMH Lahore Medical College and Institute of Dentistry, Lahore, PAK
| | - Md Sakibuzzaman
- Neuroscience, California Institute of Behavioral Neurosciences & Psychology, Fairfield, USA
| | - Ian H Rutkofsky
- Medicine, International American University College of Medicine, Washington, D.C., USA
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Pretorius E, Bester J, Page MJ, Kell DB. The Potential of LPS-Binding Protein to Reverse Amyloid Formation in Plasma Fibrin of Individuals With Alzheimer-Type Dementia. Front Aging Neurosci 2018; 10:257. [PMID: 30186156 PMCID: PMC6113936 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2018.00257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/03/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Many studies indicate that there is a (mainly dormant) microbial component in the progressive development of Alzheimer-type dementias (ADs); and that in the case of Gram-negative organisms, a chief culprit might be the shedding of the highly inflammagenic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from their cell walls. We have recently shown that a highly sensitive assay for the presence of free LPS [added to platelet poor plasma (PPP)] lies in its ability (in healthy individuals) to induce blood to clot into an amyloid form. This may be observed in a SEM or in a confocal microscope when suitable amyloid stains (such as thioflavin T) are added. This process could be inhibited by human lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP). In the current paper, we show using scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy with amyloid markers, that PPP taken from individuals with AD exhibits considerable amyloid structure when clotting is initiated with thrombin but without added LPS. Furthermore, we could show that this amyloid structure may be reversed by the addition of very small amounts of LBP. This provides further evidence for a role of microbes and their inflammagenic cell wall products and that these products may be involved in pathological clotting in individuals with AD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Etheresia Pretorius
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Janette Bester
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Martin J Page
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Douglas B Kell
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa.,School of Chemistry, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom.,The Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|