Proteomic Landscape of Adeno-Associated Virus (AAV)-Producing HEK293 Cells

Multi-omics driven genome-scale metabolic modeling improves viral vector yield in HEK293

HEK293 cells are a versatile cell line extensively used in the production of recombinant proteins and viral vectors, notably Adeno-associated virus (AAV) (Bulcha et al., 2021). Despite their high transfection efficiency and adaptability to various culture conditions, challenges remain in achieving sufficient yields of active viral particles. This study presents a comprehensive multi-omics analysis of two HEK293 strains under good manufacturing practice conditions, focusing on the metabolic and cellular responses during AAV production. The investigation included lipidomic, exometabolomic, and transcriptomic profiling across different conditions and time points. Genome-scale metabolic models (GSMMs) were reconstructed for these strains to elucidate metabolic shifts and identify potential bottlenecks in AAV production. Notably, the study revealed significant differences between a High-producing (HP) and a Low-producing (LP) HEK293 strains, highlighting pseudohypoxia in the LP strain. Key findings include the identification of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) as a critical regulator in the LP strain, linking pseudohypoxia to poor AAV productivity. Inhibition of HIF-1α resulted in immediate cessation of cell growth and a 2.5-fold increase in viral capsid production, albeit with a decreased number of viral genomes, impacting the full-to-empty particle ratio. This trade-off is significant because it highlights a key challenge in AAV production: achieving a balance between capsid assembly and genome packaging to optimize the yield of functional viral vectors. Overall this suggests that while HIF-1α inhibition enhances capsid assembly, it simultaneously hampers nucleotide synthesis via the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP), necessary for nucleotide synthesis, and therefore for AAV genome replication.

Development of an HEK293 Suspension Cell Culture Medium, Transient Transfection Optimization Workflow, and Analytics for Batch rAAV Manufacturing

Recombinant adeno associated virus (rAAV) vectors have become popular delivery vehicles for in vivo gene therapies, but demand for rAAVs continues to outpace supply. Platform processes for rAAV production are being developed by many manufacturers, and transient chemical transfection of human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells is currently the most popular approach. However, the cutting edge nature of rAAV process development encourages manufacturers to keep cell culture media formulations, plasmid sequences, and other details proprietary, which creates hurdles for small companies and academic labs seeking to innovate in this space. To address this problem, we leveraged the resources of an academic-industry consortium (Advanced Mammalian Biomanufacturing Innovation Center, AMBIC) to develop an rAAV production system based on transient transfection of suspension HEK293 cells adapted to an in-house, chemically defined medium. We found that balancing iron and calcium levels in the medium were crucial for maintaining transfection efficiency and minimizing cell aggregation, respectively. A design of experiments approach was used to optimize the transient transfection process for batch rAAV production, and PEI:DNA ratio and cell density at transfection were the parameters with the strongest effects on vector genome (VG) titer. When the optimized transient process was transferred between two university sites, VG titers were within a twofold range. Analytical characterization showed that purified rAAV from the AMBIC process had comparable viral protein molecular weights versus vector derived from commercial processes, but differences in transducing unit (TU) titer were observed between vector preps. The developed media formulation, transient transfection process, and analytics for VG titer, capsid identity, and TU titer constitute a set of workflows that can be adopted by others to study fundamental problems that could improve product yield and quality in the nascent field of rAAV manufacturing.

HEK-omics: The promise of omics to optimize HEK293 for recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) gene therapy manufacturing

Gene therapy is poised to transition from niche to mainstream medicine, with recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) as the vector of choice. However, robust, scalable, industrialized production is required to meet demand and provide affordable patient access, which has not yet materialized. Closing the chasm between demand and supply requires innovation in biomanufacturing to achieve the essential step change in rAAV product yield and quality. Omics provides a rich source of mechanistic knowledge that can be applied to HEK293, the most commonly used cell line for rAAV production. In this review, the findings from a growing number of diverse studies that apply genomics, epigenomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to HEK293 bioproduction are explored. Learnings from CHO-omics, application of omics approaches to improve CHO bioproduction, provide a framework to explore the potential of "HEK-omics" as a multi-omics-informed approach providing actionable mechanistic insights for improved transient and stable production of rAAV and other recombinant products in HEK293.

Interferon inhibitors increase rAAV production in HEK293 cells

Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) comprise a promising viral vector for therapeutic gene delivery to treat disease. However, the current manufacturing capability of rAAVs must be improved to meet commercial demand. Previously published omics studies indicate that rAAV production through transient transfection triggers antiviral responses and endoplasmic reticulum stress responses in the host cell. Both responses negatively regulate viral production. We demonstrate that the modulation of the antiviral immune response (by blocking interferon signaling pathways) can effectively lower the production of interferon and enhance viral genome production. The use of interferon inhibitors before transfection can significantly increase rAAV production in HEK293 cells, with up to a 2-fold increase in productivity and up to a 6-fold increase in specific productivity. Compared to the untreated groups, the addition of these small molecules generally reduced viable cell density but increased vector productivity. The positive candidates were BX795 (a TBK inhibitor), TPCA-1 (an IKK2 inhibitor), Cyt387 (a JAK1 inhibitor), and ruxolitinib (another JAK1 inhibitor). These candidates were identified using deep well screening, and reproducible titer improvement was achieved in a 30 mL shake flask scale. Additionally, genome titer improvement is feasible and scalable in two different media, but the extent of improvement may vary.

Unraveling Cytotoxicity in HEK293 Cells During Recombinant AAV Production for Gene Therapy Applications

Transient transfection of HEK293 cells represents the dominant technique for the production of recombinant adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors. However, recombinant AAV (rAAV) production is cytotoxic, potentially impacting process performance, product yields, and quality, complicating downstream processing. This study characterizes cell death response for rAAV producing HEK293 cells and explores the potential to control cytotoxicity. Initial analysis of triple transfected cells revealed caspase-mediated apoptosis as a likely mechanism of cellular death. Next, the causes of this cytotoxicity were investigated by dissecting transfection steps. Exposing cells to polyethyleneimine (PEI) alone or complexed with a blank plasmid at typical concentrations had a limited impact on cell growth. However, the inclusion of plasmid constructs containing genes to produce rAAVs triggered significant cell death, with the helper plasmid being the most toxic both independently and in combination with packaging and transgene plasmids. Additionally, apoptosis in transfected cultures could be inhibited using the pan-caspase inhibitor, N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone (Z-VAD.fmk), leading to a 65% increase in peak viable cell density (VCD). Although the rAAV genome titer remained relatively unaltered, capsid levels declined upon cell death inhibition. Consequently, the ratio of full to empty capsids, an important product quality attribute (PQA) for rAAVs increased following caspase inhibition. This study provides insights into apoptosis activation in rAAVs and uncovers avenues for its modulation to alter PQAs.

E2A, VA RNA I, and L4-22k adenoviral helper genes are sufficient for AAV production in HEK293 cells

The replication-defective adeno-associated virus (AAV) is extensively utilized as a research tool or vector for gene therapy. The production process of AAV remains intricate, expensive, and mechanistically underexplored. With the aim of enhancing AAV manufacturing efficiencies in mammalian cells, we revisited the questions and optimization surrounding the requirement of the various adenoviral helper genes in enabling AAV production. First, we refined the minimal set of adenoviral genes in HEK293 AAV production to E2A, L4-22 K /33 K, and VA RNA I. These findings challenge the previously accepted necessity of adenoviral E4orf6 in AAV production. In addition, we identified L4-22 K genes as crucial helpers for AAV production. Next, a revised minimal adenoviral helper plasmid comprising E2A, L4-22 K, and VA RNA I genes was designed and demonstrated to yield high titer and potent AAV preps in HEK293 transient transfection. Lastly, stable packaging cells harboring inducible E2A and L4-22 K genes were shown to maintain AAV production yields comparable to transient transfection over a culture period of ∼10 weeks. Combined, these findings further our understanding of adenoviral helper function in mammalian AAV production and provide novel plasmid and cell-line reagents with an improved safety profile for potential broad applicability in the research and gene therapy community.

Transcriptomics-informed pharmacology identifies epigenetic and cell cycle regulators that enhance AAV production

Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) is a widely used viral vector for gene therapy. However, these vectors have limited availability due to manufacturing challenges with productivity and quality. These challenges can be addressed by better understanding the mechanisms that influence cellular responses during rAAV production. In this study, we aimed to identify targets that may enhance rAAV production using transcriptomic analyses of five cell lines with variable capacities for rAAV production. Using an intersectional approach, we measured the transcriptional responses of these cells during rAAV production and compared transcriptional profiles between high and base producers to identify possible targets for enhancing production. During rAAV production, we found transcriptional differences in cell cycle and nucleosome components contributed to proliferative capacity and DNA replication. We also saw upregulation of several core functions, including transcription, stress response, and Golgi and endoplasmic reticulum organization. Conversely, we saw consistent downregulation of other factors, including inhibitors of DNA-binding proteins and mitochondrial components. With a drug-connectivity analysis, we identified five classes of drugs that were predicted to enhance rAAV production. We also validated the efficacy of histone deacetylase and microtubule inhibitors. Our data uncover novel and previously identified pathways that may enhance rAAV production and quality to expand availability of rAAV for gene therapies.

Clinical and Translational Landscape of Viral Gene Therapies

Gene therapies hold significant promise for treating previously incurable diseases. A number of gene therapies have already been approved for clinical use. Currently, gene therapies are mostly limited to the use of adeno-associated viruses and the herpes virus. Viral vectors, particularly those derived from human viruses, play a critical role in this therapeutic approach due to their ability to efficiently deliver genetic material to target cells. Despite their advantages, such as stable gene expression and efficient transduction, viral vectors face numerous limitations that hinder their broad application. These limitations include small cloning capacities, immune and inflammatory responses, and risks of insertional mutagenesis. This review explores the current landscape of viral vectors used in gene therapy, discussing the different types of DNA- and RNA-based viral vectors, their characteristics, limitations, and current medical and potential clinical applications. The review also highlights strategies to overcome existing challenges, including optimizing vector design, improving safety profiles, and enhancing transgene expression both using molecular techniques and nanotechnologies, as well as by approved drug formulations.

Pilot-scale process development for recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) production based on high-density Sf9 cell culture

BACKGROUND

In recent years, gene therapy drugs have been widely marketed, and their effectiveness and potential have been confirmed. Thus, increasing their production on an industrial scale is critical. Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) are optimal vectors for gene therapy applications, and the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS), which is based on Sf9 cell culture, is a common tool for rAAV production.

METHODS

In this work, an Sf9 cell fed-batch process was developed using shake flasks. In the laboratory-scale bioreactor, four processes were selected as the key factors when carrying out the orthogonal experiment. On the basis of the equal P/V principle and considering the problem posed by air bubbles, a pilot-scale level bioreactor process was established.

RESULTS

Here, we describe a method in which a BEVS was used to produce rAAV vectors, with the cell density increasing to 22.8 × 106 cells/mL and the rAAV titre increasing to 20 × 1011 VG/mL upon adding feed material. By resolving the problems associated with high-density cell culture and air bubbles, this process was successfully scaled to a 50 L pilot-scale level.

CONCLUSIONS

This successful experiment not only provides a technological basis for further scale-up but also guarantees product capacity. We hope that this development process can provide reference data for studying cell culture-based drug production.

Detection of host cell microprotein impurities in antibody drug products

Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells are used to produce almost 90% of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and antibody fusion proteins (Fc-fusion). The annotation of non-canonical translation events in these cellular factories remains incomplete, limiting our ability to study CHO cell biology and detect host cell protein (HCP) impurities in the final antibody drug product. We utilised ribosome footprint profiling (Ribo-seq) to identify novel open reading frames (ORFs) including N-terminal extensions and thousands of short ORFs (sORFs) predicted to encode microproteins. Mass spectrometry-based HCP analysis of eight commercial antibody drug products (7 mAbs and 1 Fc-fusion protein) using the extended protein sequence database revealed the presence of microprotein impurities. We present evidence that microprotein abundance varies with growth phase and can be affected by the cell culture environment. In addition, our work provides a vital resource to facilitate future studies of non-canonical translation and the regulation of protein synthesis in CHO cell lines.

Temporal insights into molecular and cellular responses during rAAV production in HEK293T cells

The gene therapy field seeks cost-effective, large-scale production of recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) vectors for high-dosage therapeutic applications. Although strategies like suspension cell culture and transfection optimization have shown moderate success, challenges persist for large-scale applications. To unravel molecular and cellular mechanisms influencing rAAV production, we conducted an SWATH-MS proteomic analysis of HEK293T cells transfected using standard, sub-optimal, and optimal conditions. Gene Ontology and pathway analysis revealed significant protein expression variations, particularly in processes related to cellular homeostasis, metabolic regulation, vesicular transport, ribosomal biogenesis, and cellular proliferation under optimal transfection conditions. This resulted in a 50% increase in rAAV titer compared with the standard protocol. Additionally, we identified modifications in host cell proteins crucial for AAV mRNA stability and gene translation, particularly regarding AAV capsid transcripts under optimal transfection conditions. Our study identified 124 host proteins associated with AAV replication and assembly, each exhibiting distinct expression pattern throughout rAAV production stages in optimal transfection condition. This investigation sheds light on the cellular mechanisms involved in rAAV production in HEK293T cells and proposes promising avenues for further enhancing rAAV titer during production.

Advances and opportunities in process analytical technologies for viral vector manufacturing

Viral vectors are an emerging, exciting class of biologics whose application in vaccines, oncology, and gene therapy has grown exponentially in recent years. Following first regulatory approval, this class of therapeutics has been vigorously pursued to treat monogenic disorders including orphan diseases, entering hundreds of new products into pipelines. Viral vector manufacturing supporting clinical efforts has spurred the introduction of a broad swath of analytical techniques dedicated to assessing the diverse and evolving panel of Critical Quality Attributes (CQAs) of these products. Herein, we provide an overview of the current state of analytics enabling measurement of CQAs such as capsid and vector identities, product titer, transduction efficiency, impurity clearance etc. We highlight orthogonal methods and discuss the advantages and limitations of these techniques while evaluating their adaptation as process analytical technologies. Finally, we identify gaps and propose opportunities in enabling existing technologies for real-time monitoring from hardware, software, and data analysis viewpoints for technology development within viral vector biomanufacturing.

Comparative transcriptomic and proteomic kinetic analysis of adeno-associated virus production systems

Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) is a major gene delivery vehicle. We have constructed a stable rAAV producer cell line by integrating essential rAAV genome, viral and helper genes into the genome of HEK293 cell under the control of inducible promoters. Upon induction, the cell line produces transducing rAAV. To gain insight into enhancing rAAV productivity and vector quality, we performed a comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analysis of our synthetic cell line GX2 and two wild-type AAV (wtAAV) production systems, one by virus co-infection and the other by multi-plasmid transfection. The three systems had different kinetics in viral component synthesis but generated comparable copies of AAV genomes; however, the capsid titer of GX2 was an order of magnitude lower compared to those two wtAAV systems, indicating that its capsid production may be insufficient. The genome packaging efficiency was also lower in GX2 despite it produced higher levels of Rep52 proteins than either wtAAV systems, suggesting that Rep52 protein expression may not limit genome packaging. In the two wtAAV systems, VP were the most abundant AAV proteins and their levels continued to increase, while GX2 had high level of wasteful cargo gene expression. Furthermore, upregulated inflammation, innate immune responses, and MAPK signaling, as well as downregulated mitochondrial functions, were commonly observed in either rAAV or wtAAV systems. Overall, this comparative multi-omics study provided rich insights into host cell and viral factors that are potential targets for genetic and process intervention to enhance the productivity of synthetic rAAV producer cell lines. KEY POINTS: • wtAAV infection was more efficient in producing full viral particles than the synthetic cell GX2. • Capsid protein synthesis, genome replication, and packaging may limit rAAV production in GX2. • wtAAV infection and rAAV production in GX2 elicited similar host cell responses.

Multi-omics kinetic analysis of recombinant adeno-associated virus production by plasmid transfection of HEK293 cells

Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) is among the most commonly used vectors for gene therapy. It is commonly produced by transfection of HEK293 cells with three plasmids each containing the vector genome including gene of interest (GOI), helper functions, and rep and cap genes for genome replication and capsid formation. To meet the potential clinical needs, the productivity of the production system needs to be enhanced. A better process characterization of the production system will further advance our insights into ways to enhance productivity. Here, we employed transcriptomic analysis to quantify the dynamics of different isoforms of viral transcripts and to assess the shift of cellular physiology, and deployed targeted proteomic analysis for absolute quantification of viral proteins and tandem mass tags (TMTs) for assessing cellular responses at the protein level. Functional analysis at transcriptome and proteome levels identified defense and immune response, unfolded protein response, p53 signaling as enriched. The small molecule additive intervention study based on functional analysis showed the potential of such omics-guided productivity enhancement. Together, multi-omics analysis advanced understanding of rAAV production and provided insight into enhancing rAAV production by plasmid transfection.

Technological advancements in viral vector designing and optimization for therapeutic applications

Viral vector engineering is critical to the advancement of several sectors of biotechnology, gene therapy, and vaccine development. These vectors were produced from viruses, were employed to deliver therapeutic genes or to alter biological processes. The potential for viral vectors to improve the precision, safety, and efficiency of therapeutic interventions has boosted their demand. The dynamic interplay between technological advancements and computational tools in establishing the landscape of viral vector engineering and vector optimization for therapeutic reasons is discussed in this chapter. It also emphasizes the importance of in silico techniques in maximizing vector potential for therapeutics and many phases of viral vector engineering, from genomic analysis to computer modelling and advancements to improve precise gene delivery. High-throughput screening propels the expedited process of vector selection, and computational techniques to analyze complex omics data to further enhance vector capabilities have been discussed. As in silico models reveal insights into off-target effects and integration sites, vector safety (biodistribution and toxicity) remains a crucial part and bridges the gap between preclinical and clinical investigations. Despite the limitations, this chapter depicts a future in which technology and computing merge to catapult viral vector therapy into an era of boundless possibilities.

Recent advances in upstream process development for production of recombinant adeno-associated virus

Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) is rapidly emerging as the preferred delivery vehicle for gene therapies, with promising advantages in safety and efficacy. Key challenges in systemic in-vivo rAAV gene therapy applications are the gap in production capabilities versus potential market demand and complex production process. This review summarizes current available information on rAAV upstream manufacturing processes and proposed optimizations for production. The advancements in rAAV production media were reviewed with proposals to speed up the cell culture process development. Furthermore, major methods for genetic element delivery to host cells were summarized with their advantages, limitations, and future directions for optimization. In addition, culture vessel selection criteria were listed based on production cell system, scale, and development stage. Process control at the production step was also outlined with an in-depth understanding of production kinetics and quality control.

CAR Gene Delivery by T-cell Targeted Lentiviral Vectors is Enhanced by Rapamycin Induced Reduction of Antiviral Mechanisms

Lentiviral vectors (LV) have become the dominant tool for stable gene transfer into lymphocytes including chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) gene delivery to T cells, a major breakthrough in cancer therapy. Yet, room for improvement remains, especially for the latest LV generations delivering genes selectively into T cell subtypes, a key requirement for in vivo CAR T cell generation. Toward improving gene transfer rates with these vectors, whole transcriptome analyses on human T lymphocytes are conducted after exposure to CAR-encoding conventional vectors (VSV-LV) and vectors targeted to CD8+ (CD8-LV) or CD4+ T cells (CD4-LV). Genes related to quiescence and antiviral restriction are found to be upregulated in CAR-negative cells exposed to all types of LVs. Down-modulation of various antiviral restriction factors, including the interferon-induced transmembrane proteins (IFITMs) is achieved with rapamycin as verified by mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Strikingly, rapamycin enhances transduction by up to 7-fold for CD8-LV and CD4-LV without compromising CAR T cell activities but does not improve VSV-LV. When administered to humanized mice, CD8-LV results in higher rates of green fluorescent protein (GFP) gene delivery. Also in vivo CAR T cell generation is improved in kinetics and tumor control, however to a moderate extent, leaving room for improvement by optimizing the rapamycin administration schedule. The data favor multi-omics approaches for improvements in gene delivery.

Glycosylation shapes the efficacy and safety of diverse protein, gene and cell therapies

Over recent decades, therapeutic proteins have had widespread success in treating a myriad of diseases. Glycosylation, a near universal feature of this class of drugs, is a critical quality attribute that significantly influences the physical properties, safety profile and biological activity of therapeutic proteins. Optimizing protein glycosylation, therefore, offers an important avenue to developing more efficacious therapies. In this review, we discuss specific examples of how variations in glycan structure and glycoengineering impacts the stability, safety, and clinical efficacy of protein-based drugs that are already in the market as well as those that are still in preclinical development. We also highlight the impact of glycosylation on next generation biologics such as T cell-based cancer therapy and gene therapy.

Critical challenges and advances in recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) biomanufacturing

Gene therapy is a promising therapeutic approach for genetic and acquired diseases nowadays. Among DNA delivery vectors, recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) is one of the most effective and safest vectors used in commercial drugs and clinical trials. However, the current yield of rAAV biomanufacturing lags behind the necessary dosages for clinical and commercial use, which embodies a concentrated reflection of low productivity of rAAV from host cells, difficult scalability of the rAAV-producing bioprocess, and high levels of impurities materialized during production. Those issues directly impact the price of gene therapy medicine in the market, limiting most patients' access to gene therapy. In this context, the current practices and several critical challenges associated with rAAV gene therapy bioprocesses are reviewed, followed by a discussion of recent advances in rAAV-mediated gene therapy and other therapeutic biological fields that could improve biomanufacturing if these advances are integrated effectively into the current systems. This review aims to provide the current state-of-the-art technology and perspectives to enhance the productivity of rAAV while reducing impurities during production of rAAV.

Development of a highly sensitive imaged cIEF immunoassay for studying AAV capsid protein charge heterogeneity

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of adeno-associated virus (AAV) capsid proteins tune and regulate the AAV infective life cycle, which can impact the safety and efficacy of AAV gene therapy products. Many of these PTMs induce changes in protein charge heterogeneity, including deamidation, oxidation, glycation, and glycosylation. To characterize the charge heterogeneity of a protein, imaged capillary isoelectric focusing (icIEF) has become the gold standard method. We have previously reported an icIEF method with native fluorescence detection for denatured AAV capsid protein charge heterogeneity analysis. Although well suited for final products, the method does not have sufficient sensitivity for upstream, low-concentration AAV samples, and lacks the specificity for capsid protein detection in complex samples like cell culture supernatants and cell lysates. In contrast, the combination of icIEF, protein capture, and immunodetection affords significantly higher sensitivity and specificity, addressing the challenges of the icIEF method. By leveraging different primary antibodies, the icIEF immunoassay provides additional selectivity and affords a detailed characterization of individual AAV capsid proteins. In this study, we describe an icIEF immunoassay method for AAV analysis that is 90 times more sensitive than native fluorescence icIEF. This icIEF immunoassay provides AAV stability monitoring, where changes in individual capsid protein charge heterogeneity can be observed in response to heat stress. When applied to different AAV serotypes, this method also provides serotype identity with reproducible quantification of VP protein peak areas and apparent isoelectric point (pI). Overall, the described icIEF immunoassay is a sensitive, reproducible, quantitative, specific, and selective tool that can be used across the AAV biomanufacturing process, especially in upstream process development where complex sample types are often encountered.

SP3-based host cell protein monitoring in AAV-based gene therapy products using LC-MS/MS

Residual host cell proteins (HCPs) represent a critical quality attribute of biotherapeutic drug products. Workflows enabling reliable HCP detection in monoclonal antibodies and recombinant proteins have been developed, which facilitated process optimization to improve product stability and safety and allowed setting of acceptance limits for HCP content. However, the detection of HCPs in gene therapy products such as adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors has been limited by methods and their reagents. Here, the use of SP3 sample preparation followed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis for HCP profiling in various AAV samples is reported. Suitability of the workflow is demonstrated and provided data constitutes an important reference for future work aiming towards a knowledge-driven improvement of manufacturing conditions and characterization of AAV vector products.

Increased recombinant adeno-associated virus production by HEK293 cells using small molecule chemical additives

Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) has established itself as a highly efficacious gene delivery vector with a well characterised safety profile allowing broad clinical application. Recent successes in rAAV-mediated gene therapy clinical trials will continue to drive demand for improved rAAV production processes to reduce costs. Here, we demonstrate that small molecule bioactive chemical additives can significantly increase recombinant AAV vector production by human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells up to three-fold. Nocodazole (an anti-mitotic agent) and M344 (a selective histone deacetylase inhibitor) were identified as positive regulators of rAAV8 genome titre in a microplate screening assay. Addition of nocodazole to triple-transfected HEK293 suspension cells producing rAAV arrested cells in G2/M phase, increased average cell volume and reduced viable cell density relative to untreated rAAV producing cells at harvest. Final crude genome vector titre from nocodazole treated cultures was >2-fold higher compared to non-treated cultures. Further investigation showed nocodazole addition to cultures to be time critical. Genome titre improvement was found to be scalable and serotype independent across two distinct rAAV serotypes, rAAV8 and rAAV9. Furthermore, a combination of M344 and nocodazole produced a positive additive effect on rAAV8 genome titre, resulting in a three-fold increase in genome titre compared to untreated cells.

Production of rAAV by plasmid transfection induces antiviral and inflammatory responses in suspension HEK293 cells

Recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV) is a clinically proven viral vector for delivery of therapeutic genes to treat rare diseases. Improving rAAV manufacturing productivity and vector quality is necessary to meet clinical and commercial demand. These goals will require an improved understanding of the cellular response to rAAV production, which is poorly defined. We interrogated the kinetic transcriptional response of HEK293 cells to rAAV production following transient plasmid transfection, under manufacturing-relevant conditions, using RNA-seq. Time-series analyses identified a robust cellular response to transfection and rAAV production, with 1,850 transcripts differentially expressed. Gene Ontology analysis determined upregulated pathways, including inflammatory and antiviral responses, with several interferon-stimulated cytokines and chemokines being upregulated at the protein level. Literature-based pathway prediction implicated multiple pathogen pattern sensors and signal transducers in up-regulation of inflammatory and antiviral responses in response to transfection and rAAV replication. Systematic analysis of the cellular transcriptional response to rAAV production indicates that host cells actively sense vector manufacture as an infectious insult. This dataset may therefore illuminate genes and pathways that influence rAAV production, thereby enabling the rational design of next-generation manufacturing platforms to support safe, effective, and affordable AAV-based gene therapies.

Mass spectrometry in gene therapy: Challenges and opportunities for AAV analysis

The characterization of adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based gene therapy products represents significant challenges owing to their extremely large molecular sizes, structural complexity and heterogeneity, and limited sample amounts. Mass spectrometry (MS) is one of the key analytical tools that can overcome these challenges and serve as an important technique for the analysis of multiple attributes. In this review, the current methodologies and emerging trends in MS analysis of AAV gene therapy products are presented, highlighting their advantages and unique capabilities in addressing key issues encountered in intact AAV vector analysis, capsid viral protein characterization and impurity analysis.