1
|
Staropoli A, Di Mola I, Ottaiano L, Cozzolino E, Pironti A, Lombardi N, Nanni B, Mori M, Vinale F, Woo SL, Marra R. Biodegradable Mulch Films and Bioformulations Based on Trichoderma sp. and Seaweed Extract Differentially Affect the Metabolome of Industrial Tomato Plants. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:97. [PMID: 38392769 PMCID: PMC10890107 DOI: 10.3390/jof10020097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The use of biostimulants and biofilms in agriculture is constantly increasing, as they may support plant growth and productivity by improving nutrient absorption, increasing stress resilience and providing sustainable alternatives to chemical management practices. In this work, two commercial products based on Trichoderma afroharzianum strain T22 (Trianum P®) and a seaweed extract from Ascophyllum nodosum (Phylgreen®) were tested on industrial tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum var. Heinz 5108F1) in a field experiment. The effects of single and combined applications of microbial and plant biostimulants on plants grown on two different biodegradable mulch films were evaluated in terms of changes in the metabolic profiles of leaves and berries. Untargeted metabolomics analysis by LC-MS Q-TOF revealed the presence of several significantly accumulated compounds, depending on the biostimulant treatment, the mulch biofilm and the tissue examined. Among the differential compounds identified, some metabolites, belonging to alkaloids, flavonoids and their derivatives, were more abundant in tomato berries and leaves upon application of Trichoderma-based product. Interestingly, the biostimulants, when applied alone, similarly affected the plant metabolome compared to control or combined treatments, while significant differences were observed according to the mulch biofilm applied.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Staropoli
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
- Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, National Research Council, Piazzale Enrico Fermi, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Ida Di Mola
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Lucia Ottaiano
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Eugenio Cozzolino
- Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Research Center for Cereal and Industrial Crops, Viale Douhet, 8, 81100 Caserta, Italy
| | - Angela Pironti
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Nadia Lombardi
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
- BAT Center-Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Bruno Nanni
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Mauro Mori
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
- BAT Center-Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
| | - Francesco Vinale
- Institute for Sustainable Plant Protection, National Research Council, Piazzale Enrico Fermi, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Production, University of Naples "Federico II", Via Delpino, 1, 80137 Naples, Italy
| | - Sheridan Lois Woo
- BAT Center-Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, Via Domenico Montesano 49, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Roberta Marra
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
- BAT Center-Interuniversity Center for Studies on Bioinspired Agro-Environmental Technology, University of Naples Federico II, Piazza Carlo di Borbone, 1, 80055 Naples, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Guo Q, Shi L, Wang X, Li D, Yin Z, Zhang J, Ding G, Chen L. Structures and Biological Activities of Secondary Metabolites from the Trichoderma genus (Covering 2018-2022). JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:13612-13632. [PMID: 37684097 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c04540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/10/2023]
Abstract
Trichoderma, a genus with more than 400 species, has a long history of use as an industrial bioreactor, biofertilizer, and biocontrol agent. It is considered a significant source of secondary metabolites (SMs) that possess unique structural features and a wide range of bioactivities. In recent years, numerous secondary metabolites of Trichoderma, including terpenoids, polyketides, peptides, alkaloids, and steroids, have been identified. Most of these SMs displayed antimicrobial, cytotoxic, and antifungal effects. This review focuses on the structural diversity, biological activities, and structure-activity relationships (SARs) of the SMs isolated from Trichoderma covered from 2018 to 2022. This study provides insights into the exploration and utilization of bioactive compounds from Trichoderma species in the agriculture or pharmaceutical industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingfeng Guo
- Henan Comprehensive Utilization of Edible and Medicinal Plant Resources Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology of Natural Products, Huanghe Science and Technology College, Zhengzhou 450063, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Shi
- Henan Comprehensive Utilization of Edible and Medicinal Plant Resources Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology of Natural Products, Huanghe Science and Technology College, Zhengzhou 450063, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinyang Wang
- Henan Comprehensive Utilization of Edible and Medicinal Plant Resources Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology of Natural Products, Huanghe Science and Technology College, Zhengzhou 450063, People's Republic of China
- Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, People's Republic of China
| | - Dandan Li
- Henan Comprehensive Utilization of Edible and Medicinal Plant Resources Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology of Natural Products, Huanghe Science and Technology College, Zhengzhou 450063, People's Republic of China
- Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenhua Yin
- Henan Comprehensive Utilization of Edible and Medicinal Plant Resources Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology of Natural Products, Huanghe Science and Technology College, Zhengzhou 450063, People's Republic of China
| | - Juanjuan Zhang
- Henan Comprehensive Utilization of Edible and Medicinal Plant Resources Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology of Natural Products, Huanghe Science and Technology College, Zhengzhou 450063, People's Republic of China
| | - Gang Ding
- Institute of Medicinal Plant Development, Chinese Academy of Medical Science and Union Medical College, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Chen
- Henan Comprehensive Utilization of Edible and Medicinal Plant Resources Engineering Technology Research Center, Zhengzhou Key Laboratory of Synthetic Biology of Natural Products, Huanghe Science and Technology College, Zhengzhou 450063, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Gomes T, Pereira JA, Moya-Laraño J, Poveda J, Lino-Neto T, Baptista P. Deciphering plant health status: The link between secondary metabolites, fungal community and disease incidence in olive tree. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1048762. [PMID: 37035041 PMCID: PMC10073708 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1048762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Plant-associated microorganisms are increasingly recognized to play key roles in host health. Among several strategies, associated microorganisms can promote the production of specific metabolites by their hosts. However, there is still a huge gap in the understanding of such mechanisms in plant-microorganism interaction. Here, we want to determine whether different levels of olive leaf spot (OLS) disease incidence were related to differences in the composition of fungal and secondary metabolites (i.e. phenolic and volatile compounds) in leaves from olive tree cultivars with contrasting OLS susceptibilities (ranging from tolerant to highly susceptible). Accordingly, leaves with three levels of OLS incidence from both cultivars were used to assess epiphytic and endophytic fungal communities, by barcoding of cultivable isolates, as well as to evaluate leaf phenolic and volatile composition. Fungal and metabolite compositions variations were detected according to the level of disease incidence. Changes were particularly noticed for OLS-tolerant cultivars, opposing to OLS-susceptible cultivars, suggesting that disease development is linked, not only to leaf fungal and metabolite composition, but also to host genotype. A set of metabolites/fungi that can act as predictive biomarkers of plant tolerance/susceptibility to OLS disease were identified. The metabolites α-farnesene and p-cymene, and the fungi Fusarium sp. and Alternaria sp. were more related to disease incidence, while Pyronema domesticum was related to the absence of disease symptoms. Cultivar susceptibility to OLS disease is then suggested to be driven by fungi, volatile and phenolic host leaves composition, and above all to plant-fungus interaction. A deeper understanding of these complex interactions may unravel plant defensive responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Gomes
- Centro De Investigação De Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório Associado Para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia Em Regiões De Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico De Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
| | - José Alberto Pereira
- Centro De Investigação De Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório Associado Para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia Em Regiões De Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico De Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
| | - Jordi Moya-Laraño
- Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, Estación Experimental De Zonas Áridas - CSIC, Almería, Spain
| | - Jorge Poveda
- Centro De Investigação De Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório Associado Para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia Em Regiões De Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico De Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Institute for Multidisciplinary Research in Applied Biology (IMAB), Universidad Pública De Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Teresa Lino-Neto
- Centre of Molecular and Environmental Biology (CBMA), Department of Biology, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - Paula Baptista
- Centro De Investigação De Montanha (CIMO), Instituto Politécnico de Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
- Laboratório Associado Para a Sustentabilidade e Tecnologia Em Regiões De Montanha (SusTEC), Instituto Politécnico De Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Valorization of the Photo-Protective Potential of the Phytochemically Standardized Olive ( Olea europaea L.) Leaf Extract in UVA-Irradiated Human Skin Fibroblasts. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27165144. [PMID: 36014384 PMCID: PMC9415354 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27165144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Leaves of Olea europaea are a by-product of the olive oil industry and a dietary supplement with acknowledged antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity but underestimated photoprotective potential. We investigated the protective effects of the LC-PDA-MS/MS standardized ethanol-water extract of olive leaves (OLE), containing 26.2% total phenols and 22.2% oleuropein, with underlying mechanisms against the UVA-induced oxidative damage in human dermal fibroblasts. Hs68 cells were pre-treated (24 h) with OLE (2.5-25 μg/mL) or the reference antioxidants, quercetin and ascorbic acid (25 μg/mL), followed by irradiation (8 J/cm2). OLE significantly reduced the UVA-induced DNA damage and reactive oxygen species (ROS) overproduction and increased the thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) expression and post-radiation viability of fibroblasts by inhibiting their apoptosis. Both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathways appeared to be inhibited by OLE, but the activity of caspase 9 was the most reduced. We hypothesized that the TrxR up-regulation by OLE could have prevented the UVA-induced apoptosis of Hs68 cells. In addition, a significant decrease in UVA-induced secretion levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) and interleukin-2 (IL-2) was shown in human lymphocyte culture in response to OLE treatment. In summary, our results support the beneficial effect of OLE in an in vitro model and indicate its great potential for use in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industry as a topical photoprotective, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory agent.
Collapse
|
5
|
Mishra N, Chauhan P, Verma P, Singh SP, Mishra A. Metabolomic Approaches to Study Trichoderma-Plant Interactions. Fungal Biol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-91650-3_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
6
|
Velasco P, Rodríguez VM, Soengas P, Poveda J. Trichoderma hamatum Increases Productivity, Glucosinolate Content and Antioxidant Potential of Different Leafy Brassica Vegetables. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:plants10112449. [PMID: 34834812 PMCID: PMC8619120 DOI: 10.3390/plants10112449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Brassica crops include important vegetables known as "superfoods" due to the content of phytochemicals of great interest to human health, such as glucosinolates (GSLs) and antioxidant compounds. On the other hand, Trichoderma is a genus of filamentous fungi that includes several species described as biostimulants and/or biological control agents in agriculture. In a previous work, an endophytic strain of Trichoderma hamatum was isolated from kale roots (Brassica oleracea var. acephala), describing its ability to induce systemic resistance in its host plant. In the present work, some of the main leafy Brassica crops (kale, cabbage, leaf rape and turnip greens) have been root-inoculated with T. hamatum, having the aim to verify the possible capacity of the fungus as a biostimulant in productivity as well as the foliar content of GSLs and its antioxidant potential, in order to improve these "superfoods". The results reported, for the first time, an increase in the productivity of kale (55%), cabbage (36%) and turnip greens (46%) by T. hamatum root inoculation. Furthermore, fungal inoculation reported a significant increase in the content of total GSLs in cabbage and turnip greens, mainly of the GSLs sinigrin and gluconapin, respectively, along with an increase in their antioxidant capacity. Therefore, T. hamatum could be a good agricultural biostimulant in leafy Brassica crops, increasing the content of GSLs and antioxidant potential of great food and health interest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Velasco
- Misión Biológica de Galicia (MBG-CSIC), 36143 Pontevedra, Spain; (P.V.); (V.M.R.); (P.S.)
| | | | - Pilar Soengas
- Misión Biológica de Galicia (MBG-CSIC), 36143 Pontevedra, Spain; (P.V.); (V.M.R.); (P.S.)
| | - Jorge Poveda
- Institute for Multidisciplinary Research in Applied Biology (IMAB), Campus Arrosadía, Universidad Pública de Navarra, 31006 Pamplona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Evaluation of Trichoderma spp. Isolates in Cocoa Seed Treatment and Seedling Production. PLANTS 2021; 10:plants10091964. [PMID: 34579496 PMCID: PMC8468600 DOI: 10.3390/plants10091964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Isolates of Trichoderma spp., a soil fungus, has been used to control diseases and promote plant growth, reducing the use of chemicals in the production of seedlings of different plant species. We evaluated the effect of some Trichoderma spp. isolates on seed treatment and seedling production of Theobromacacao. Five isolates from the Amazon region were tested. In laboratory, the following variables were evaluated for seed treatments: germination, germination speed index, radicle and hypocotyl lengths, and fungi incidence. In nursery, the following forms of application were tested: via seeds; in the substrate at pre-planting; monthly in post-planting substrate, and also their combination. The following was evaluated: height, diameter, number of leaves, root length, leaf area, and shoot dry mass and root system. Inoculation with Trichoderma increased the length of the radicle and hypocotyl and showed no fungi in the seeds. In seedlings, some treatments increased height and plant root dry mass. The use of Trichoderma was beneficial for seeds and appeared favorable for T. cacao production.
Collapse
|
8
|
Effect of Selected Trichoderma Strains and Metabolites on Olive Drupes. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11188710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Beneficial fungal strains of the genus Trichoderma are used as biofungicides and plant growth promoters. Trichoderma strains promote the activation of plant defense mechanisms of action, including the production of phenolic metabolites. In this work, we analyzed the effects of selected Trichoderma strains (T. asperellum KV906, T. virens GV41, and T. harzianum strains TH1, M10, and T22) and their metabolites (harzianic acid and 6-pentyl-α-pyrone) on drupes of young olive trees (4-year-old) cv. Carolea. This study used the untargeted analysis of drupe metabolome, carried out by LC–MS Q-TOF, to evaluate the phenolics profiles and target metabolomics approach to detect oleuropein and luteolin. The untargeted approach showed significant differences in the number and type of phenolic compounds in olive drupes after Trichoderma applications (by root dipping and drench soil irrigation method) compared to control. The levels of oleuropein (secoiridoid) and luteolin (flavonoid) varied according to the strain or metabolite applied, and in some cases, were less abundant in treated plants than in the control. In general, flavonoids’ levels were influenced more than secoiridoid production. The dissimilar aptitudes of the biological treatments could depend on the selective competence to cooperate with the enzymes involved in producing the secondary metabolites to defend plants by environmental stresses. Our results suggest that using selected fungi of the genus Trichoderma and their metabolites could contribute to selecting the nutraceutical properties of the olive drupe. The use of the metabolites would bring further advantages linked to the dosage in culture and storage.
Collapse
|
9
|
Li T, Li L, Du F, Sun L, Shi J, Long M, Chen Z. Activity and Mechanism of Action of Antifungal Peptides from Microorganisms: A Review. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26113438. [PMID: 34198909 PMCID: PMC8201221 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26113438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Harmful fungi in nature not only cause diseases in plants, but also fungal infection and poisoning when people and animals eat food derived from crops contaminated with them. Unfortunately, such fungi are becoming increasingly more resistant to traditional synthetic antifungal drugs, which can make prevention and control work increasingly more difficult to achieve. This means they are potentially very harmful to human health and lifestyle. Antifungal peptides are natural substances produced by organisms to defend themselves against harmful fungi. As a result, they have become an important research object to help deal with harmful fungi and overcome their drug resistance. Moreover, they are expected to be developed into new therapeutic drugs against drug-resistant fungi in clinical application. This review focuses on antifungal peptides that have been isolated from bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms to date. Their antifungal activity and factors affecting it are outlined in terms of their antibacterial spectra and effects. The toxic effects of the antifungal peptides and their common solutions are mentioned. The mechanisms of action of the antifungal peptides are described according to their action pathways. The work provides a useful reference for further clinical research and the development of safe antifungal drugs that have high efficiencies and broad application spectra.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tianxi Li
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China; (T.L.); (L.L.); (F.D.)
| | - Lulu Li
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China; (T.L.); (L.L.); (F.D.)
| | - Fangyuan Du
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China; (T.L.); (L.L.); (F.D.)
| | - Lei Sun
- College of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine, Jinzhou Medical University, Jinzhou 121001, China;
| | - Jichao Shi
- Liaoning Agricultural Development Service Center, Shenyang 110032, China;
| | - Miao Long
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China; (T.L.); (L.L.); (F.D.)
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (Z.C.)
| | - Zeliang Chen
- College of Animal Science & Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China; (T.L.); (L.L.); (F.D.)
- Correspondence: (M.L.); (Z.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Deciphering Trichoderma-Plant-Pathogen Interactions for Better Development of Biocontrol Applications. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7010061. [PMID: 33477406 PMCID: PMC7830842 DOI: 10.3390/jof7010061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the fungal genus Trichoderma (Ascomycota, Hypocreales, Hypocreaceae) are ubiquitous and commonly encountered as soil inhabitants, plant symbionts, saprotrophs, and mycoparasites. Certain species have been used to control diverse plant diseases and mitigate negative growth conditions. The versatility of Trichoderma’s interactions mainly relies on their ability to engage in inter- and cross-kingdom interactions. Although Trichoderma is by far the most extensively studied fungal biocontrol agent (BCA), with a few species already having been commercialized as bio-pesticides or bio-fertilizers, their wide application has been hampered by an unpredictable efficacy under field conditions. Deciphering the dialogues within and across Trichoderma ecological interactions by identification of involved effectors and their underlying effect is of great value in order to be able to eventually harness Trichoderma’s full potential for plant growth promotion and protection. In this review, we focus on the nature of Trichoderma interactions with plants and pathogens. Better understanding how Trichoderma interacts with plants, other microorganisms, and the environment is essential for developing and deploying Trichoderma-based strategies that increase crop production and protection.
Collapse
|