Fabrication of 3D-Printed Fish-Gelatin-Based Polymer Hydrogel Patches for Local Delivery of PEGylated Liposomal Doxorubicin

3D printing injectable microbeads using a composite liposomal ink for local treatment of peritoneal diseases

The peritoneal cavity offers an attractive administration route for challenging-to-treat diseases, such as peritoneal carcinomatosis, post-surgical adhesions, and peritoneal fibrosis. Achieving a uniform and prolonged drug distribution throughout the entire peritoneal space, though, is difficult due to high clearance rates, among others. To address such an unmet clinical need, alternative drug delivery approaches providing sustained drug release, reduced clearance rates, and a patient-centric strategy are required. Here, we describe the development of a 3D-printed composite platform for the sustained release of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor gefitinib (GEF), a small molecule drug with therapeutic applications for peritoneal metastasis and post-surgical adhesions. We present a robust method for the production of biodegradable liposome-loaded hydrogel microbeads that can overcome the pharmacokinetic limitations of small molecules with fast clearance rates, a current bottleneck for the intraperitoneal (IP) administration of these therapeutics. By means of an electromagnetic droplet printhead, we 3D printed microbeads employing an alginate-based ink loaded with GEF-containing multilamellar vesicles (MLVs). The sustained release of GEF from microbeads was demonstrated. In vitro studies on an immortalized human hepatic cancer cell line (Huh-7) proved concentration-dependent cell death. These findings demonstrate the potential of 3D-printed alginate microbeads containing liposomes for delivering small drug compounds into the peritoneum, overcoming previous limitations of IP drug delivery.

Gelatin Methacryloyl (GelMA)-Based Biomaterial Inks: Process Science for 3D/4D Printing and Current Status

Tissue engineering for injured tissue replacement and regeneration has been a subject of investigation over the last 30 years, and there has been considerable interest in using additive manufacturing to achieve these goals. Despite such efforts, many key questions remain unanswered, particularly in the area of biomaterial selection for these applications as well as quantitative understanding of the process science. The strategic utilization of biological macromolecules provides a versatile approach to meet diverse requirements in 3D printing, such as printability, buildability, and biocompatibility. These molecules play a pivotal role in both physical and chemical cross-linking processes throughout the biofabrication, contributing significantly to the overall success of the 3D printing process. Among the several bioprintable materials, gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) has been widely utilized for diverse tissue engineering applications, with some degree of success. In this context, this review will discuss the key bioengineering approaches to identify the gelation and cross-linking strategies that are appropriate to control the rheology, printability, and buildability of biomaterial inks. This review will focus on the GelMA as the structural (scaffold) biomaterial for different tissues and as a potential carrier vehicle for the transport of living cells as well as their maintenance and viability in the physiological system. Recognizing the importance of printability toward shape fidelity and biophysical properties, a major focus in this review has been to discuss the qualitative and quantitative impact of the key factors, including microrheological, viscoelastic, gelation, shear thinning properties of biomaterial inks, and printing parameters, in particular, reference to 3D extrusion printing of GelMA-based biomaterial inks. Specifically, we emphasize the different possibilities to regulate mechanical, swelling, biodegradation, and cellular functionalities of GelMA-based bio(material) inks, by hybridization techniques, including different synthetic and natural biopolymers, inorganic nanofillers, and microcarriers. At the close, the potential possibility of the integration of experimental data sets and artificial intelligence/machine learning approaches is emphasized to predict the printability, shape fidelity, or biophysical properties of GelMA bio(material) inks for clinically relevant tissues.

Liposome-integrated hydrogel hybrids: Promising platforms for cancer therapy and tissue regeneration

Drug delivery platforms have gracefully emerged as an indispensable component of novel cancer chemotherapy, bestowing targeted drug distribution, elevating therapeutic effects, and reducing the burden of unwanted side effects. In this context, hybrid delivery systems artfully harnessing the virtues of liposomes and hydrogels bring remarkable benefits, especially for localized cancer therapy, including intensified stability, excellent amenability to hydrophobic and hydrophilic medications, controlled liberation behavior, and appropriate mucoadhesion to mucopenetration shift. Moreover, three-dimensional biocompatible liposome-integrated hydrogel networks have attracted unprecedented interest in tissue regeneration, given their tunable architecture and physicochemical properties, as well as enhanced mechanical support. This review elucidates and presents cutting-edge developments in recruiting liposome-integrated hydrogel systems for cancer treatment and tissue regeneration.

Enhancing antioxidant delivery through 3D printing: a pathway to advanced therapeutic strategies

The rapid advancement of 3D printing has transformed industries, including medicine and pharmaceuticals. Integrating antioxidants into 3D-printed structures offers promising therapeutic strategies for enhanced antioxidant delivery. This review explores the synergistic relationship between 3D printing and antioxidants, focusing on the design and fabrication of antioxidant-loaded constructs. Incorporating antioxidants into 3D-printed matrices enables controlled release and localized delivery, improving efficacy while minimizing side effects. Customization of physical and chemical properties allows tailoring of antioxidant release kinetics, distribution, and degradation profiles. Encapsulation techniques such as direct mixing, coating, and encapsulation are discussed. Material selection, printing parameters, and post-processing methods significantly influence antioxidant release kinetics and stability. Applications include wound healing, tissue regeneration, drug delivery, and personalized medicine. This comprehensive review aims to provide insights into 3D printing-assisted antioxidant delivery systems, facilitating advancements in medicine and improved patient outcomes for oxidative stress-related disorders.

Application of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting in anti-cancer therapy

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting is a novel technology that enables the creation of 3D structures with bioinks, the biomaterials containing living cells. 3D bioprinted structures can mimic human tissue at different levels of complexity from cells to organs. Currently, 3D bioprinting is a promising method in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering applications, as well as in anti-cancer therapy research. Cancer, a type of complex and multifaceted disease, presents significant challenges regarding diagnosis, treatment, and drug development. 3D bioprinted models of cancer have been used to investigate the molecular mechanisms of oncogenesis, the development of cancers, and the responses to treatment. Conventional 2D cancer models have limitations in predicting human clinical outcomes and drug responses, while 3D bioprinting offers an innovative technique for creating 3D tissue structures that closely mimic the natural characteristics of cancers in terms of morphology, composition, structure, and function. By precise manipulation of the spatial arrangement of different cell types, extracellular matrix components, and vascular networks, 3D bioprinting facilitates the development of cancer models that are more accurate and representative, emulating intricate interactions between cancer cells and their surrounding microenvironment. Moreover, the technology of 3D bioprinting enables the creation of personalized cancer models using patient-derived cells and biomarkers, thereby advancing the fields of precision medicine and immunotherapy. The integration of 3D cell models with 3D bioprinting technology holds the potential to revolutionize cancer research, offering extensive flexibility, precision, and adaptability in crafting customized 3D structures with desired attributes and functionalities. In conclusion, 3D bioprinting exhibits significant potential in cancer research, providing opportunities for identifying therapeutic targets, reducing reliance on animal experiments, and potentially lowering the overall cost of cancer treatment. Further investigation and development are necessary to address challenges such as cell viability, printing resolution, material characteristics, and cost-effectiveness. With ongoing progress, 3D bioprinting can significantly impact the field of cancer research and improve patient outcomes.

Development of a Microfluidic Formatted Ultrasound-Controlled Monodisperse Lipid Vesicles' Hydrogel Dressing Combined with Ultrasound for Transdermal Drug Delivery System

Transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) has attracted much attention in the pharmaceutical technology area. However, the current methods are difficult to ensure penetration efficiency, controllability, and safety in the dermis, so its widespread clinical use has been limited. This work proposes an ultrasound-controlled monodisperse lipid vesicles (U-CMLVs) hydrogel dressing, which combines with ultrasound to form TDDS. Using microfluidic technology, prepare size controllable U-CMLVs with high drug encapsulation efficiency and quantitative encapsulation of ultrasonic response materials, and even uniform mix them with hydrogel to prepare the required thickness of dressings. The high encapsulation efficiency can ensure sufficient dosage of the drugs and further realize the control of ultrasonic response through quantitative encapsulation of ultrasound-responsive materials. Using high frequency (5 MHz, 0.4 W cm-2 ) and low frequency (60 kHz, 1 W cm-2 ) ultrasound to control the movement and rupture of U-CMLVs, the contents not only penetrate the stratum corneum into the epidermis but also break through the bottleneck of penetration efficiency, and deep into the dermis. These findings provide the groundwork for deep, controllable, efficient, and safe drug delivery through TDDS and lay a foundation for further expanding its application.

Personalizing oral delivery of nanoformed piroxicam by semi-solid extrusion 3D printing

Semi-solid extrusion (SSE) 3D printing enables flexible designs and dose sizes to be printed on demand and is a suitable tool for fabricating personalized dosage forms. Controlled Expansion of Supercritical Solution (CESS®) is a particle size reduction technology, and it produces particles of a pure active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) in a dry state, suspendable in the printing ink. In the current study, as a model API of poorly water-soluble drug, nanoformed piroxicam (nanoPRX) prepared by CESS® was accommodated in hydroxypropyl methylcellulose- or hydroxypropyl cellulose-based ink formulations to warrant the printability in SSE 3D printing. Importantly, care must be taken when developing nanoPRX formulations to avoid changes in their polymorphic form or particle size. Printing inks suitable for SSE 3D printing that successfully stabilized the nanoPRX were developed. The inks were printed into films with escalating doses with exceptional accuracy. The original polymorphic form of nanoPRX in the prepared dosage forms was not affected by the manufacturing process. In addition, the conducted stability study showed that the nanoPRX in the prepared dosage form remained stable for at least three months from printing. Overall, the study rationalizes that with nanoparticle-based printing inks, superior dose control for the production of personalized dosage forms of poorly water-soluble drugs at the point-of-care can be achieved.

Solid implantable devices for sustained drug delivery

Implantable drug delivery systems (IDDS) are an attractive alternative to conventional drug administration routes. Oral and injectable drug administration are the most common routes for drug delivery providing peaks of drug concentrations in blood after administration followed by concentration decay after a few hours. Therefore, constant drug administration is required to keep drug levels within the therapeutic window of the drug. Moreover, oral drug delivery presents alternative challenges due to drug degradation within the gastrointestinal tract or first pass metabolism. IDDS can be used to provide sustained drug delivery for prolonged periods of time. The use of this type of systems is especially interesting for the treatment of chronic conditions where patient adherence to conventional treatments can be challenging. These systems are normally used for systemic drug delivery. However, IDDS can be used for localised administration to maximise the amount of drug delivered within the active site while reducing systemic exposure. This review will cover current applications of IDDS focusing on the materials used to prepare this type of systems and the main therapeutic areas of application.

Evaluation of multicomplex systems on pomegranate concentrate loaded alginate hydrogels by low-field NMR relaxometry: physicochemical characterization and controlled release study

Alginate (ALG) and various gums are potential biomaterials to be employed in hydrogel designs for both food and biomedical applications. This study evaluated a multicomplex design by combining food grade polymers to examine their polymer-polymer interactions and design an oral delivery system for pomegranate concentrate (PC). ALG was replaced with gum tragacanth (GT), xanthan (XN) and their equal combinations (GT:XN) at 50% ratio in hydrogel fabrication. In addition to CaCI2 in binding solution, honey (H) and chitosan (CH) were also used during physical crosslinking. Relaxation time constants in NMR indicated poor ability of GT for water entrapment especially in the presence of honey (S2H). They also confirmed FTIR results indicating similar trends. Strong negative correlations were observed between T2 and texture results. GT replacement of ALG especially in the use of single CaCI2 (S2) promoted higher PC release up to 80% in digestive media compared to XN substitution (S3). This study promoted use of LF NMR as an indicator for polymer mixture characterization in complex gels. ALG based gels could be modified by replacing ALG with different kinds of gums and with use of different binding solutions to regulate target compound release in food and pharmaceutical fields.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-023-05730-2.

Development of Biocomposite Alginate-Cuttlebone-Gelatin 3D Printing Inks Designed for Scaffolds with Bone Regeneration Potential

Fabrication of three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds using natural biomaterials introduces valuable opportunities in bone tissue reconstruction and regeneration. The current study aimed at the development of paste-like 3D printing inks with an extracellular matrix-inspired formulation based on marine materials: sodium alginate (SA), cuttlebone (CB), and fish gelatin (FG). Macroporous scaffolds with microporous biocomposite filaments were obtained by 3D printing combined with post-printing crosslinking. CB fragments were used for their potential to stimulate biomineralization. Alginate enhanced CB embedding within the polymer matrix as confirmed by scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) and micro-computer tomography (micro-CT) and improved the deformation under controlled compression as revealed by micro-CT. SA addition resulted in a modulation of the bulk and surface mechanical behavior, and lead to more elongated cell morphology as imaged by confocal microscopy and ESEM after the adhesion of MC3T3-E1 preosteoblasts at 48 h. Formation of a new mineral phase was detected on the scaffold's surface after cell cultures. All the results were correlated with the scaffolds' compositions. Overall, the study reveals the potential of the marine materials-containing inks to deliver 3D scaffolds with potential for bone regeneration applications.

Transdermal delivery via medical device technologies

INTRODUCTION

Despite their effectiveness and indispensability, many drugs are poorly solvated in aqueous solutions. Over recent decades, the need for targeted drug delivery has led to the development of pharmaceutical formulations with enhanced lipid solubility to improve their delivery properties. Therefore, a dependable approach for administering lipid-soluble drugs needs to be developed.

AREAS COVERED

The advent of 3D printing or additive manufacturing (AM) has revolutionized the development of medical devices, which can effectively enable the delivery of lipophilic drugs to the targeted tissues. This review focuses on the use of microneedles and iontophoresis for transdermal drug delivery. Microneedle arrays, inkjet printing, and fused deposition modeling have emerged as valuable approaches for delivering several classes of drugs. In addition, iontophoresis has been successfully employed for the effective delivery of macromolecular drugs.

EXPERT OPINION

Microneedle arrays, inkjet printing, and fused deposition are potentially useful for many drug delivery applications; however, the clinical and commercial adoption rates of these technologies are relatively low. Additional efforts is needed to enable the pharmaceutical community to fully realize the benefits of these technologies.

Nanomedicine and versatile therapies for cancer treatment

The higher prevalence of cancer is related to high rates of mortality and morbidity worldwide. By virtue of the properties of matter at the nanoscale, nanomedicine is proven to be a powerful tool to develop innovative drug carriers with greater efficacies and fewer side effects than conventional therapies. In this review, different nanocarriers for controlled drug release and their routes of administration have been discussed in detail, especially for cancer treatment. Special emphasis has been given on the design of drug delivery vehicles for sustained release and specific application methods for targeted delivery to the affected areas. Different polymeric vehicles designed for the delivery of chemotherapeutics have been discussed, including graft copolymers, liposomes, hydrogels, dendrimers, micelles, and nanoparticles. Furthermore, the effect of dimensional properties on chemotherapy is vividly described. Another integral section of the review focuses on the modes of administration of nanomedicines and emerging therapies, such as photothermal, photodynamic, immunotherapy, chemodynamic, and gas therapy, for cancer treatment. The properties, therapeutic value, advantages, and limitations of these nanomedicines are highlighted, with a focus on their increased performance versus conventional molecular anticancer therapies.

Nanomaterial integrated 3D printing for biomedical applications

3D printing technology, otherwise known as additive manufacturing, has provided a promising tool for manufacturing customized biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. A vast variety of biomaterials including metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites are currently being used as base materials in 3D printing. In recent years, nanomaterials have been incorporated into 3D printing polymers to fabricate innovative, versatile, multifunctional hybrid materials that can be used in many different applications within the biomedical field. This review focuses on recent advances in novel hybrid biomaterials composed of nanomaterials and 3D printing technologies for biomedical applications. Various nanomaterials including metal-based nanomaterials, metal-organic frameworks, upconversion nanoparticles, and lipid-based nanoparticles used for 3D printing are presented, with a summary of the mechanisms, functional properties, advantages, disadvantages, and applications in biomedical 3D printing. To finish, this review offers a perspective and discusses the challenges facing the further development of nanomaterials in biomedical 3D printing.

Can Liposomes Survive Inkjet Printing? The Effect of Jetting on Key Liposome Attributes for Drug Delivery Applications

Purpose

Inkjet printing has the potential to enable novel personalized and tailored drug therapies based on liposome and lipid nanoparticles. However, due to the significant shear force exerted on the jetted fluids, its suitability for shear-sensitive materials such as liposomes, has not been verified. We have conducted a proof-of-concept study to examine whether the particle concentration and size distribution of placebo liposomes are affected by common inkjet/dispensing technologies.

Methods

We have subjected three types of liposome-containing fluids ("inks") to two different commercial dispensing/jetting technologies, which are relevant to most drug printing approaches. The liposome jetting processes were observed in real-time using strobographic imaging techniques. The phospholipid concentrations and particle size distributions were determined before and after jetting via enzymatic colorimetric and dynamic light scattering methods, respectively.

Results

Our results have shown that the jetting dynamics of the liposome inks are well predicted by the established inkjet printing regime map based on their physical properties and the jetting conditions. Importantly, although significant shear forces were confirmed during jetting, the liposome concentrations and particle size distributions in the collected samples remain largely unaffected.

Conclusion

These findings, we believe, provide the essential proof-of-concept to encourage further development in this highly topical research area.

Additive Manufacturing Strategies for Personalized Drug Delivery Systems and Medical Devices: Fused Filament Fabrication and Semi Solid Extrusion

Novel additive manufacturing (AM) techniques and particularly 3D printing (3DP) have achieved a decade of success in pharmaceutical and biomedical fields. Highly innovative personalized therapeutical solutions may be designed and manufactured through a layer-by-layer approach starting from a digital model realized according to the needs of a specific patient or a patient group. The combination of patient-tailored drug dose, dosage, or diagnostic form (shape and size) and drug release adjustment has the potential to ensure the optimal patient therapy. Among the different 3D printing techniques, extrusion-based technologies, such as fused filament fabrication (FFF) and semi solid extrusion (SSE), are the most investigated for their high versatility, precision, feasibility, and cheapness. This review provides an overview on different 3DP techniques to produce personalized drug delivery systems and medical devices, highlighting, for each method, the critical printing process parameters, the main starting materials, as well as advantages and limitations. Furthermore, the recent developments of fused filament fabrication and semi solid extrusion 3DP are discussed. In this regard, the current state of the art, based on a detailed literature survey of the different 3D products printed via extrusion-based techniques, envisioning future directions in the clinical applications and diffusion of such systems, is summarized.

Nanocarrier-hydrogel composite delivery systems for precision drug release

Hydrogels are a class of biomaterials widely implemented in medical applications due to their biocompatibility and biodegradability. Despite the many successes of hydrogel-based delivery systems, there remain challenges to hydrogel drug delivery such as a burst release at the time of administration, a limited ability to encapsulate certain types of drugs (i.e., hydrophobic drugs, proteins, antibodies, and nucleic acids), and poor tunability of geometry and shape for controlled drug release. This review discusses two main important advances in hydrogel fabrication for precision drug release: first, the incorporation of nanocarriers to diversify their drug loading capability, and second, the design of hydrogels using 3D printing to precisely control drug dosing and release kinetics via high-resolution structures and geometries. We also outline ongoing challenges and discuss opportunities to further optimize drug release from hydrogels for personalized medicine. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Recent progress in three-dimensionally-printed dosage forms from a pharmacist perspective

OBJECTIVE

Additive manufacturing (AM), commonly known as 3D printing (3DP), has opened new frontiers in pharmaceutical applications. This review is aimed to summarise the recent development of 3D-printed dosage forms, from a pharmacists' perspective.

METHODS

Keywords including additive manufacturing, 3D printing and drug delivery were used for literature search in PubMed, Excerpta Medica Database (EMBASE) and Web of Science, to identify articles published in the year 2020.

RESULTS

For each 3DP study, the active pharmaceutical ingredients, 3D printers and materials used for the printing were tabulated and discussed. 3DP has found its applications in various dosage forms for oral delivery, transdermal delivery, rectal delivery, vaginal delivery, implant and bone scaffolding. Several topics were discussed in detail, namely patient-specific dosing, customisable drug administration, multidrug approach, varying drug release, compounding pharmacy, regulatory progress and future perspectives. AM is expected to become a common tool in compounding pharmacies to make polypills and personalised medications.

CONCLUSION

3DP is an enabling tool to fabricate dosage forms with intricate structure designs, tailored dosing, drug combinations and controlled release, all of which lend it to be highly conducive to personalisation, thereby revolutionising the future of pharmacy practice.

Lyophilized ophthalmologic patches as novel corneal drug formulations using a semi-solid extrusion 3D printer

3D printing technology is a novel and practical approach for producing unique and complex industrial and medical objects. In the pharmaceutical field, the approval of 3D printed tablets by the US Food and Drug Administration has led to other 3D printed drug formulations and dosage forms being proposed and investigated. Here, we report novel ophthalmologic patches for controlled drug release fabricated using a semi-solid material extrusion-type 3D printer. The patch-shaped objects were 3D printed using hydrogel-based printer inks composed of hypromellose (HPMC), sugar alcohols (mannitol, xylitol), and drugs, then freeze-dried. The viscous properties of the printer inks and patches were dependent on the HPMC and sugar alcohol concentrations. Then, the physical properties, surface structure, water uptake, antimicrobial activity, and drug release profile of lyophilized patches were characterized. Lyophilized ophthalmologic patches with different dosages and patterns were fabricated as models of personalized treatments prepared in hospitals. Then, ophthalmologic patches containing multiple drugs were fabricated using commercially available eye drop formulations. The current study indicates that 3D printing is applicable to producing novel dosage forms because its high flexibility allows the preparation of patient-tailored dosages in a clinical setting.

Polysaccharide 3D Printing for Drug Delivery Applications

3D printing, or additive manufacturing, has gained considerable interest due to its versatility regarding design as well as in the large choice of materials. It is a powerful tool in the field of personalized pharmaceutical treatment, particularly crucial for pediatric and geriatric patients. Polysaccharides are abundant and inexpensive natural polymers, that are already widely used in the food industry and as excipients in pharmaceutical and cosmetic formulations. Due to their intrinsic properties, such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-immunogenicity, etc., polysaccharides are largely investigated as matrices for drug delivery. Although an increasing number of interesting reviews on additive manufacturing and drug delivery are being published, there is a gap concerning the printing of polysaccharides. In this article, we will review recent advances in the 3D printing of polysaccharides focused on drug delivery applications. Among the large family of polysaccharides, the present review will particularly focus on cellulose and cellulose derivatives, chitosan and sodium alginate, printed by fused deposition modeling and extrusion-based printing.

3D Printed Personalized Medicine for Cancer: Applications for Betterment of Diagnosis, Prognosis and Treatment

Cancer treatment is challenging due to the tumour heterogeneity that makes personalized medicine a suitable technique for providing better cancer treatment. Personalized medicine analyses patient-related factors like genetic make-up and lifestyle and designs treatments that offer the benefits of reduced side effects and efficient drug delivery. Personalized medicine aims to provide a holistic way for prevention, diagnosis and treatment. The customization desired in personalized medicine is produced accurately by 3D printing which is an established technique known for its precision. Different 3D printing techniques exhibit their capability in producing cancer-specific medications for breast, liver, thyroid and kidney tumours. Three-dimensional printing displays major influence on cancer modelling and studies using cancer models in treatment and diagnosis. Three-dimensional printed personalized tumour models like physical 3D models, bioprinted models and tumour-on-chip models demonstrate better in vitro and in vivo correlation in drug screening, cancer metastasis and prognosis studies. Three-dimensional printing helps in cancer modelling; moreover, it has also changed the facet of cancer treatment. Improved treatment via custom-made 3D printed devices, implants and dosage forms ensures the delivery of anticancer agents efficiently. This review covers recent applications of 3D printed personalized medicine in various cancer types and comments on the possible future directions like application of 4D printing and regularization of 3D printed personalized medicine in healthcare.

Biomaterials from the sea: Future building blocks for biomedical applications

Marine resources have tremendous potential for developing high-value biomaterials. The last decade has seen an increasing number of biomaterials that originate from marine organisms. This field is rapidly evolving. Marine biomaterials experience several periods of discovery and development ranging from coralline bone graft to polysaccharide-based biomaterials. The latter are represented by chitin and chitosan, marine-derived collagen, and composites of different organisms of marine origin. The diversity of marine natural products, their properties and applications are discussed thoroughly in the present review. These materials are easily available and possess excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability and potent bioactive characteristics. Important applications of marine biomaterials include medical applications, antimicrobial agents, drug delivery agents, anticoagulants, rehabilitation of diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, bone diseases and diabetes, as well as comestible, cosmetic and industrial applications.

Development of Multi-Compartment 3D-Printed Tablets Loaded with Self-Nanoemulsified Formulations of Various Drugs: A New Strategy for Personalized Medicine

This work aimed to develop a three-dimensional printed (3DP) tablet containing glimepiride (GLMP) and/or rosuvastatin (RSV) for treatment of dyslipidemia in patients with diabetes. Curcumin oil was extracted from the dried rhizomes of Curcuma longa and utilized to develop a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS). Screening mixture experimental design was conducted to develop SNEDDS formulation with a minimum droplet size. Five different semi-solid pastes were prepared and rheologically characterized. The prepared pastes were used to develop 3DP tablets using extrusion printing. The quality attributes of the 3DP tablets were evaluated. A non-compartmental extravascular pharmacokinetic model was implemented to investigate the in vivo behavior of the prepared tablets and the studied marketed products. The optimized SNEDDS, of a 94.43 ± 3.55 nm droplet size, was found to contain 15%, 75%, and 10% of oil, polyethylene glycol 400, and tween 80, respectively. The prepared pastes revealed a shear-thinning of pseudoplastic flow behavior. Flat-faced round tablets of 15 mm diameter and 5.6–11.2 mm thickness were successfully printed and illustrated good criteria for friability, weight variation, and content uniformity. Drug release was superior from SNEDDS-based tablets when compared to non-SNEDDS tablets. Scanning electron microscopy study of the 3DP tablets revealed a semi-porous surface that exhibited some curvature with the appearance of tortuosity and a gel porous-like structure of the inner section. GLMP and RSV demonstrated relative bioavailability of 159.50% and 245.16%, respectively. Accordingly, the developed 3DP tablets could be considered as a promising combined oral drug therapy used in treatment of metabolic disorders. However, clinical studies are needed to investigate their efficacy and safety.

In vivo inducing collagen regeneration of biodegradable polymer microspheres

Biodegradable polymer particles have been used as dermal fillers for pre-clinical and clinical trials. The impact of material properties of polymers is very important to develop products for aesthetic medicine such as dermal fillers. Herein, eight biodegradable polymers with different molecular weights, chemical compositions or hydrophilic-hydrophobic properties were prepared and characterized for systematical study for aesthetic medicine applications. Polymer microspheres with 20-100 μm were prepared. The in vitro degradation study showed that poly (L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) 75/25 microspheres degraded the fastest, whereas poly (L-lactic acid) (PLLA) microspheres with intrinsic viscosity of 6.89 ([η] = 6.89) with the highest molecular weight showed the slowest degradation rate. After these microspheres were fabricated dermal fillers according to the formula of Sculptra®, they were injected subcutaneously into the back skin of rabbits. In vivo results demonstrated that the degradation rate of microspheres strongly correlated with the foreign body reaction and collagen regeneration was induced by microspheres. The microspheres with faster degradation rate induced inflammatory response and the collagen regeneration maintained in shorter time. PLLA ([η] = 3.80) microsphere with a moderate molecular weight and degradation rate could strongly regenerate Type I and III collagen to maintain a long-term aesthetic medicine effect. These properties of size, morphology and degradation behavior would influence the foreign body reaction and collagen regeneration.

Polymeric long-acting drug delivery systems (LADDS) for treatment of chronic diseases: Inserts, patches, wafers, and implants

Non-oral long-acting drug delivery systems (LADDS) encompass a range of technologies for precisely delivering drug molecules into target tissues either through the systemic circulation or via localized injections for treating chronic diseases like diabetes, cancer, and brain disorders as well as for age-related eye diseases. LADDS have been shown to prolong drug release from 24 h up to 3 years depending on characteristics of the drug and delivery system. LADDS can offer potentially safer, more effective, and patient friendly treatment options compared to more invasive modes of drug administration such as repeated injections or minor surgical intervention. Whilst there is no single technology or definition that can comprehensively embrace LADDS; for the purposes of this review, these systems include solid implants, inserts, transdermal patches, wafers and in situ forming delivery systems. This review covers common chronic illnesses, where candidate drugs have been incorporated into LADDS, examples of marketed long-acting pharmaceuticals, as well as newly emerging technologies, used in the fabrication of LADDS.

Mammalian and Fish Gelatin Methacryloyl-Alginate Interpenetrating Polymer Network Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering

Gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) has been widely studied as a biomaterial for tissue engineering. Most studies focus on mammalian gelatin, but certain factors, such as mammalian diseases and diet restrictions, limit the use of mammalian gelatin. Thus, fish gelatin has received much attention as a substitute material in recent years. To develop a broadly applicable hydrogel with excellent properties, an interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) hydrogel was synthesized, since IPN hydrogels consist of at least two different hydrogel components to combine their advantages. In this study, we prepared GelMA using type A and fish gelatin and then synthesized IPN hydrogels using GelMA with alginate. GelMA single-network hydrogels were used as a control group. The favorable mechanical properties of type A and fish hydrogels improved after the synthesis of the IPN hydrogels. Type A and fish IPN hydrogels showed different mechanical properties (mechanical strength, swelling ratio, and degradation rate) and different cross-sectional morphologies, since the degree of mechanical enhancement in fish IPN hydrogels was less than that in type A; however, the cell biocompatibilities were not significantly different. Therefore, these findings could serve as a reference for future studies when selecting GelMA as a biological material for tissue engineering.

Recent advancements in 3D bioprinting technology of carboxymethyl cellulose-based hydrogels: Utilization in tissue engineering

3D printing technology has grown exponentially since its introduction due to its ability to print complex structures quickly and simply. The ink used in 3D printers is one of the most discussed areas and a variety of hydrogel-based inks were developed. Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is derived from cellulose, which is a natural, biocompatible, biodegradable, and wildly abounded biopolymer. CMC is a very qualified candidate in the preparation of hydrogels because it has good solubility in water with multiple carboxyl groups. Various physical and chemical cross-linking methods and mechanisms have been used by researchers to prepare CMC-based hydrogels. Bioprinting is a powerful technology for tissue engineering applications that have been able to design and simulate different tissue and organs with digital control. Among many advantages, which were reported for bioprinting, its high throughput, as well as precise control of scaffolding and cells, is very valuable. Considering all these tips and capabilities, in this study, the methods of preparation and improvement of CMC-based hydrogels, applied 3D printer, and the latest inks designed using this biopolymer in terms of combination, features, and performance in tissue engineering are reported.

Versatility on demand - The case for semi-solid micro-extrusion in pharmaceutics

Since additive manufacturing of pharmaceuticals has been introduced as viable method to produce individualized drug delivery systems with complex geometries and release profiles, semi-solid micro-extrusion has shown to be uniquely beneficial. Easy incorporation of actives, room-temperature processability and avoidance of cross-contamination by using disposables are some of the advantages that led many researchers to focus their work on this technology in the last few years. First acceptability and in-vivo studies have brought it closer towards implementation in decentralized settings. This review covers recently established process models in light of viscosity and printability discussions to help develop high quality printed medicines. Quality defining formulation and process parameters to characterize the various developed dosage forms are presented before critically discussing the role of semi-solid micro-extrusion in the future of personalized drug delivery systems. Remaining challenges regarding regulatory guidance and quality assurance that pose the last hurdle for large scale and commercial manufacturing are addressed.

Cosmetic, Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Applications of Fish Gelatin/Hydrolysates

There are several reviews that separately cover different aspects of fish gelatin including its preparation, characteristics, modifications, and applications. Its packaging application in food industry is extensively covered but other applications are not covered or covered alongside with those of collagen. This review is comprehensive, specific to fish gelatin/hydrolysate and cites recent research. It covers cosmetic applications, intrinsic activities, and biomedical applications in wound dressing and wound healing, gene therapy, tissue engineering, implants, and bone substitutes. It also covers its pharmaceutical applications including manufacturing of capsules, coating of microparticles/oils, coating of tablets, stabilization of emulsions and drug delivery (microspheres, nanospheres, scaffolds, microneedles, and hydrogels). The main outcomes are that fish gelatin is immunologically safe, protects from the possibility of transmission of bovine spongiform encephalopathy and foot and mouth diseases, has an economic and environmental benefits, and may be suitable for those that practice religious-based food restrictions, i.e., people of Muslim, Jewish and Hindu faiths. It has unique rheological properties, making it more suitable for certain applications than mammalian gelatins. It can be easily modified to enhance its mechanical properties. However, extensive research is still needed to characterize gelatin hydrolysates, elucidate the Structure Activity Relationship (SAR), and formulate them into dosage forms. Additionally, expansion into cosmetic applications and drug delivery is needed.

Semi-solid extrusion 3D printing in drug delivery and biomedicine: Personalised solutions for healthcare challenges

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is an innovative additive manufacturing technology, capable of fabricating unique structures in a layer-by-layer manner. Semi-solid extrusion (SSE) is a subset of material extrusion 3D printing, and through the sequential deposition of layers of gel or paste creates objects of any desired size and shape. In comparison to other extrusion-based technologies, SSE 3D printing employs low printing temperatures which makes it suitable for drug delivery and biomedical applications, and the use of disposable syringes provides benefits in meeting critical quality requirements for pharmaceutical use. Besides pharmaceutical manufacturing, SSE 3D printing has attracted increasing attention in the field of bioelectronics, particularly in the manufacture of biosensors capable of measuring physiological parameters or as a means to trigger drug release from medical devices. This review begins by highlighting the major printing process parameters and material properties that influence the feasibility of transforming a 3D design into a 3D object, and follows with a discussion on the current SSE 3D printing developments and their applications in the fields of pharmaceutics, bioprinting and bioelectronics. Finally, the advantages and limitations of this technology are explored, before focusing on its potential clinical applications and suitability for preparing personalised medicines.

3D Printing as a Promising Tool in Personalized Medicine

Personalized medicine has the potential to revolutionize the healthcare sector, its goal being to tailor medication to a particular individual by taking into consideration the physiology, drug response, and genetic profile of that individual. There are many technologies emerging to cause this paradigm shift from the conventional "one size fits all" to personalized medicine, the major one being three-dimensional (3D) printing. 3D printing involves the establishment of a three-dimensional object, in a layer upon layer manner using various computer software. 3D printing can be used to construct a wide variety of pharmaceutical dosage forms varying in shape, release profile, and drug combination. The major technological platforms of 3D printing researched on in the pharmaceutical sector include inkjet printing, binder jetting, fused filament fabrication, selective laser sintering, stereolithography, and pressure-assisted microsyringe. A possible future application of this technology could be in a clinical setting, where prescriptions could be dispensed based on individual needs. This manuscript points out the various 3D printing technologies and their applications in research for fabricating pharmaceutical products, along with their pros and cons. It also presents its potential in personalized medicine by individualizing the dose, release profiles, and incorporating multiple drugs in a polypill. An insight on how it tends to various populations is also provided. An approach of how it can be used in a clinical setting is also highlighted. Also, various challenges faced are pointed out, which must be overcome for the success of this technology in personalized medicine.