Compounds from Terminalia mantaly L. (Combretaceae) Stem Bark Exhibit Potent Inhibition against Some Pathogenic Yeasts and Enzymes of Metabolic Significance

Application of Microwave-Assisted Water Extraction (MAWE) to Fully Realize Various Physiological Activities of Melaleuca quinquenervia Leaf Extract

Melaleuca quinquenervia is widely grown in tropical areas worldwide. Studies have demonstrated that extracts of its buds, leaves, and branches obtained through hydrodistillation, steam distillation, or solvent extraction exhibit physiological activities, including anti-melanogenic, antibacterial, and antioxidant properties; nevertheless, such extracts are mostly not effectively collected or adequately utilized. Accordingly, this study applied a rapid, effective, and easy-to-operate microwave-assisted water extraction (MAWE) technique for the first time to prepare M. quinquenervia leaf extract (MLE) with improved physiological activities. The results indicated that the optimal irradiation time and liquid/solid ratio for the production of the MLE were 180 s and 20 mL/g, respectively. Under optimal conditions, the freeze-dried MLE achieved a high yield (6.28% ± 0.08%) and highly effective broad-spectrum physiological activities. The MLE exhibited strong antioxidant, antiaging, and anti-inflammatory activities and excellent antityrosinase and antimicrobial activities. Additionally, the MLE was noncytotoxic at concentrations of ≤300 mg/L, at which it exhibited pharmacological activity. The results also indicated that the MLE comprised a total of 24 chemical compounds and 17 phenolic compounds. Among these compounds, luteolin contributed to antityrosinase activity. The extract's antiaging activity was attributed to ellagic acid and quercetin, its anti-inflammatory activity resulted from ellagic acid and kaempferol, and its antimicrobial activity resulted from quercetin and 3-O-methylellagic acid. In conclusion, the MAWE-derived MLE may be useful as a functional ingredient in cosmetic products, health foods, and botanical drugs.

Specific sub fractions from Terminalia mantaly (H. Perrier) extracts potently inhibit Plasmodium falciparum rings, merozoite egress and invasion

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Terminalia mantaly (H. Perrier) and Terminalia superba (Engl. & Diels) are sources of treatment for various diseases, including malaria and/or related symptoms in parts of Southwestern Cameroon. However, there is limited information on the extent of the antiplasmodial potential of their extracts.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study was designed to investigate the antiplasmodial potential of chromatographic sub fractions (SFs) from promising fractions of Terminalia mantaly (Tm) [Tmsb^wChl, the chloroform fraction from water extract of Tm, IC₅₀ (μg/mL) PfINDO: 0.56, Pf3D7: 1.12; SI > 357 (HEK/PfINDO) & 178 (HEK/Pf3D7)] and Terminalia superba (Ts) [Tsr^mEA, the ethyl acetate fraction from methanolic extract of Ts, IC₅₀ (μg/mL) PfINDO: 1.82, Pf3D7: 1.65; SI > 109 (HEK/PfINDO) & 121 (HEK/Pf3D7)] obtained from previous studies. The SFs were tested against Plasmodium falciparum 3D7 (Pf3D7-chloroquine sensitive) and INDO (PfINDO-chloroquine resistant) strains in culture. Also, the phytochemical profile of potent SFs was determined and finally, the inhibition of the asexual blood stages of Plasmodium falciparum by the SFs with the highest promise was assessed.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Selected SFs were submitted to a second bio-guided fractionation using silica gel column chromatography. The partial phytochemical composition of potent antiplasmodial SFs was determined using gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The SYBR Green I-based fluorescence microtiter plate assay was used to monitor the growth of Plasmodium falciparum parasites in culture in the presence or absence of extracts. Microscopy and flow cytometry counting was used to assess the Plasmodium falciparum stage-specific inhibition and post-drug exposure growth suppression by highly potent extracts.

RESULTS

Twenty-one of the 39 SFs afforded from Tmsb^wChl showed activity (IC₅₀: 0.29-4.74 μg/mL) against both Pf3D7 and PfINDO strains. Of note, eight SFs namely, Tm25, Tm28-30, Tm34-36 and Tm38, exerted highly potent antiplasmodial activity (IC₅₀ < 1 μg/mL) with IC₅₀PfINDO: 0.41-0.84 μg/mL and IC₅₀Pf3D7: 0.29-0.68 μg/mL. They also displayed very high selectivity (50 < SI_PfINDO, SI_Pf3D7 > 344) on the two Plasmodial strains. On the other hand, 7 SFs (SFs Ts03, Ts04, Ts06, Ts09, Ts10, Ts12 and Ts13) from Tsr^mEA showed promising inhibitory potential against both parasite strains (IC₅₀: 2.01-5.14 μg/mL). Sub fraction Tm36 (IC₅₀PfINDO: 0.41 μg/mL, SI_PfINDO > 243; IC₅₀Pf3D7: 0.29 μg/mL, SI_Pf3D7 > 344) showed the highest promise. The GC-MS analysis of the 8 selected SFs led to the identification of 99 phytometabolites, with D-limonene (2), benzaldehyde (12), carvone (13), caryophyllene (35), hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (74) and 9-octadecenoic acid, methyl ester (82) being the main constituents. Sub fractions Tm28, Tm29, Tm30, Tm36 and Tm38 inhibited all the three intraerythrocytic stages of P. falciparum, with strong potency against ring stage development, merozoite egress and invasion processes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has identified highly potent antiplasmodial SFs from Terminalia mantaly with significant activity on the intraerythrocytic development of Plasmodium falciparum. These SFs qualify as promising sources of novel antiplasmodial lead compounds. Further purification and characterization studies are expected to unravel molecular targets in rings and merozoites.

Terminaliamide, a new ceramide and other phytoconstituents from the roots of Terminalia mantaly H. Perrier and their biological activities

Terminaliamide (1), a new ceramide was isolated from the roots of Terminalia mantaly H. Perrier (Combretaceae) along with 4 known compounds (2-5). The structures of the compounds were elucidated using 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy analysis and mass spectrometry. Compound 1 exhibited moderated antibacterial activity towards Staphylococcus aureus with MIC value of 62.5 μg/mL. The crude MeOH extract (TMr) highly reduced Plasmodium falciparum growth with an IC50 value of 10.11 μg/mL, while hexane fraction (F1) highly reduced Trypanosoma brucei brucei growth with an IC50 value of 5.60 µg/mL. All tested samples presented little or no in vitro cytotoxicity on HeLa cell line. The present work confirms that T. mantaly is medicinally important and may be used effectively as an antimicrobial, an antiplasmodial and an antitrypanosomial with promising therapeutic index.

Cytotoxicity Potential of Endophytic Fungi Extracts from Terminalia catappa against Human Cervical Cancer Cells

Endophytic fungi are potential sources of novel bioactive metabolites from a natural product drug discovery perspective. This study reports the bioactivity-directed fractionation of the secondary metabolites of the ethyl acetate extract of a fermentation culture of endophytic fungi from Terminalia catappa which were then evaluated for their cytotoxicity against human cervical cancer (HeLa) cells and human foreskin fibroblast (HFF) cells. Furthermore, apoptosis was determined using the Annexin V/propidium iodide (PI) flow cytometry assay. Endophyte extracts N2, N7, N8, N97, N169, and N233 were obtained from Trichoderma sp, Phoma sp, Phomopsis phyllanticola, Fusarium oxyporum, Collectotrichum sp, and Cryptococcus flavescens, respectively. The N97 extract was most active with a 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 33.35 µg/ml. A 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC₅₀) of 268.4 µg/ml was obtained with HFF cells and the selectivity index (SI) was 8.01. The percentages of cell populations were increased at late apoptosis (Annexin+/PI+), with the percentages of 27.4 ± 0.3 and 19.2 ± 0.01 obtained, respectively, for 50 µg/ml and 80 µg/ml of the N97 extract and 2.1 ± 0.1 obtained for the control in late apoptosis (Annexin V+/PI+) . Moreover, a higher reduction in the percentage of viable cells was observed in the HeLa control cells (93.6 ± 0.3), but the percentages of viable HeLa cells were 37 ± 0.05 and 45 ± 0.1, respectively, for the 50 µg/ml and 80 µg/ml treatments with the N97 extract. Also, the percentages of 34.7 ± 0.1 and 33.9 ± 0.4 were, respectively, obtained for 50 µg/ml and 80 µg/ml compared to the control with 4.6 ± 0.2, in early apoptosis (Annexin V+/PI-). These findings highlight the anticancer potential of the N97 extract of endophytic fungi from Terminalia catappa, which is mediated through apoptosis and presumably also attenuation of chemoresistance.

Unravelling the Antibacterial Activity of Terminalia sericea Root Bark through a Metabolomic Approach

Terminalia sericea Burch. ex. DC. (Combretaceae) is a popular remedy for the treatment of infectious diseases. It is widely prescribed by traditional healers and sold at informal markets and may be a good candidate for commercialisation. For this to be realised, a thorough phytochemical and bioactivity profile is required to identify constituents that may be associated with the antibacterial activity and hence the quality of raw materials and consumer products. The aim of this study was to explore the phytochemistry and identify the antibacterial constituents of T. sericea root bark, using a metabolomic approach. The chemical profiles and antibacterial activities of 42 root bark samples collected from three districts in the Limpopo Province, South Africa, were evaluated. Dichloromethane:methanol (1:1) extracts were analysed using ultraperformance liquid chromatography (UPLC)-mass spectrometry (MS), and chemometric models were constructed from the aligned data. The extracts were tested against Bacillus cereus (ATCC 11778), Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 12223), Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25923), Escherichia coli (ATCC 8739), Klebsiella pneumoniae (ATCC 13883), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), Shigella sonnei (ATCC 9292) and Salmonella typhimurium (ATCC 14028), using the minimum inhibition microdilution assay. Nine compounds; sericic acid, sericoside, resveratrol-3-O-β-rutinoside, ellagic acid, flavogallonic acid dilactone, methyl-flavogallonate, quercetin-3-(2′′-galloylrhamnoside), resveratrol-3-(6′′-galloyl)-O-β-d-glucopyranoside and arjunetin, were isolated from the root bark. All the compounds, with the exception of sericic acid, sericoside and resveratrol-3-O-β-rutinoside, were isolated for the first time from the root bark of T. sericea. Chemometric analysis revealed clustering that was not population specific, and the presence of three groupings within the samples, characterised by sericic acid, sericoside and an unidentified compound (m/z 682/4.66 min), respectively. The crude extracts from different populations displayed varied antibacterial activities against S. typhimurium (minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) 0.25–1.0 mg/mL), but similar activity towards Bacillus cereus (1.0 mg/mL). Several compounds present in the root bark were highly active towards all or most of the pathogens tested, but this activity was not reflected by the chemical profiles of extracts prepared from the individual samples. Among the pure compounds tested, only flavogallonic acid dilactone and methyl-flavogallonate exhibited broad-spectrum activity. A biochemometric analysis indicated that there was no consistent association between the levels of phytochemicals and the activity of the active or non-active extracts. Although it was deduced that the major constituents of T. sericea root bark contributed to the chemotypic variation, further investigation of the interactions of compounds present in the root bark may provide antibacterial efficacies not evident when examining compounds singularly. The data reported herein will provide information that is fundamentally important for the development of quality control protocols.

The Genus Terminalia (Combretaceae): An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review

Terminalia Linn, a genus of mostly medium or large trees in the family Combretaceae with about 250 species in the world, is distributed mainly in southern Asia, Himalayas, Madagascar, Australia, and the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa. Many species are used widely in many traditional medicinal systems, e.g., traditional Chinese medicine, Tibetan medicine, and Indian Ayurvedic medicine practices. So far, about 39 species have been phytochemically studied, which led to the identification of 368 compounds, including terpenoids, tannins, flavonoids, phenylpropanoids, simple phenolics and so on. Some of the isolates showed various bioactivities, in vitro or in vivo, such as antitumor, anti HIV-1, antifungal, antimicrobial, antimalarial, antioxidant, diarrhea and analgesic. This review covers research articles from 1934 to 2018, retrieved from SciFinder, Wikipedia, Google Scholar, Chinese Knowledge Network and Baidu Scholar by using "Terminalia" as the search term ("all fields") with no specific time frame setting for the search. Thirty-nine important medicinal and edible Terminalia species were selected and summarized on their geographical distribution, traditional uses, phytochemistry and related pharmacological activities.

Enhanced Anti-Bacterial Activity Of Biogenic Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized From Terminalia mantaly Extracts

Background

The global increase in outbreaks and mortality rates associated with multi-drug-resistant (MDR) bacteria is a major health concern and calls for alternative treatments. Natural-derived products have shown potential in combating the most dreadful diseases, and therefore serve as an effective source of bioactive compounds that can be used as anti-bacterial agents. These compounds are able to reduce metal ions and cap nanoparticles to form biogenic nanoparticles (NPs) with remarkable anti-bacterial activities. This study explores the use of Terminalia mantaly (TM) extracts for the synthesis of biogenic silver NPs (TM-AgNPs) and the evaluation of their antibacterial activity.

Methods

TM-AgNPs were synthetized by the reduction of AgNO₃ with aqueous and methanolic TM extracts. UV-visible (UV-vis) spectrophotometry, Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Transmission Electron Microscopy, and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analyses were used to characterise the TM-AgNPs. Anti-bacterial activity of the TM extracts and TM-AgNPs was evaluated against eight bacterial strains using the broth microdilution assay. The growth inhibitory kinetics of the bio-active TM-AgNPs was assessed on susceptible strains for a period of 8 hrs.

Results

Polycrystalline biogenic AgNPs with anisotropic shapes and diameter range of 11 to 83 nm were synthesized from the TM extracts. The biogenic TM-AgNPs showed significant antibacterial activity compared to their respective extracts. The MIC values for TM-AgNPs and extracts were 3 and 125 µg/mL, respectively. Biogenic AgNPs synthesised from the aqueous TM leaf extract at 25°C (_aTML-AgNPs-25°C) showed significant antibacterial activity against all the bacterial strains tested in this study. Their bactericidal effect was particularly higher against the Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae.

Conclusion

This study demonstrated the ability of TM extracts to synthesize biogenic AgNPs. The NPs synthesized from the aqueous TM extracts demonstrated higher antibacterial activity against the tested microorganisms compared to the methanolic extracts. Studies are underway to identify the phytochemicals involved in NP synthesis and their mechanism of action.

Potent antiplasmodial extracts and fractions from Terminalia mantaly and Terminalia superba

Background

The emergence and spread of malaria parasites resistant to artemisinin-based combination therapy stresses the need for novel drugs against malaria. Investigating plants used in traditional medicine to treat malaria remains a credible option for new anti-malarial drug development. This study was aimed at investigating the antiplasmodial activity and selectivity of extracts and fractions from Terminalia mantaly and Terminalia superba (Combretaceae) that are used in Cameroon to treat malaria.

Methods

Twelve methanolic (m) and water (w) extracts obtained by maceration of powdered dried leaves (l), stem bark (sb) and root (r) of Terminalia mantaly (Tm) and Terminalia superba (Ts) and 12 derived fractions of hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate and 4 final residues of selected extracts were assessed for antiplasmodial potential in vitro against the chloroquine-resistant PfINDO and the chloroquine-sensitive Pf3D7 strains of Plasmodium falciparum using the SYBR green I-based fluorescence assay. The cytotoxicity of potent extracts and fractions was evaluated in vitro using the MTT assay on HEK239T cell line.

Results

The antiplasmodial IC₅₀ of extracts from both plants ranged from 0.26 to > 25 µg/mL. Apart from the extracts Tmrm and Tsrw that exerted moderate antiplasmodial activities (IC₅₀: 5–20 µg/mL) and Tmrw that was found to be non-active at the tested concentrations (IC₅₀ > 25 µg/mL), all other tested crude extracts exhibited potent activities with IC₅₀ < 5 µg/mL. The aqueous extracts from the stem bark of Terminalia mantaly (Tmsbw) and the leaf of Terminalia superba (Tslw) displayed the highest antiplasmodial activities (IC₅₀: 0.26–1.26 µg/mL) and selectivity (SI > 158) on both resistant PfINDO and sensitive Pf3D7 strains. Four fractions upon further extraction with chloroform and ethyl acetate (TmlwChl, TmsbwChl, TmsbwEA, TsrmEA) afforded from three selected crude extracts (Tmlw, Tmsbw, Tsrm) exhibited highly potent activities against both P. falciparum strains (IC₅₀ < 2 µg/mL) and high selectivity (SI > 109).

Conclusions

The results achieved in this work validate the reported traditional use of Terminalia mantaly and Terminalia superba to treat malaria. Moreover, the highly potent and selective fractions warrant further investigation to characterize the active antiplasmodial principles and progress them to rodent malaria models studies if activity and selectivity are evidenced.