Changes in the Ultrastructure of Candida albicans Treated with Cationic Peptides

Baicalin promotes β-1,3-glucan exposure in Candida albicans and enhances macrophage response

Among the diverse fungal opportunistic pathogens, Candida albicans garners significant attention due to its wide range of infections and high frequency of occurrence. The emergence of resistance and the limited number of antifungals drives the need to develop novel antifungal drugs. Although the natural product baicalin has been shown to trigger apoptosis in C. albicans in previous experiments, its influence on cell wall (CW) structure along with immune recognition remains elusive. In this work, baicalin showed a significant killing effect against C. albicans SC5314. Moreover, CW destruction, characterized by β-1,3-glucan unmasking and chitin deposition, was observed as a consequence of the treatment with baicalin. The RNA sequencing analysis revealed that treatment with baicalin resulted in eight hundred forty-two differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Sixty-five genes, such as GSC1, ENG1, CHS3, GWT1, and MKC1, were associated with CW organization or biogenesis. Baicalin-pretreated C. albicans SC5314 was phagocytosed more efficiently by RAW264.7 macrophages, accompanied by increased TNF-α and IL-1β production. Accordingly, it is hypothesized that baicalin could stimulate β-1,3-glucan unmasking by governing CW-associated gene expression in C. albicans SC5314, which contributes to macrophage recognition and clearance.

Antifungal Activity and Multi-Target Mechanism of Action of Methylaervine on Candida albicans

The discovery of a lead compound against Candida albicans is urgently needed because of the lack of clinically available antifungal drugs and the increase in drug resistance. Herein, a β-carboline alkaloid methylaervine (MET) exhibited potential activity against C. albicans (MIC = 16-128 μg/mL), no hemolytic toxicity, and a low tendency to induce drug resistance. An antifungal mechanism study indicated that MET effectively inhibited the biofilm formation and disrupted the mature biofilm. Moreover, filamentation formation and spore germination were also weakened. The electron microscopy analysis revealed that MET could damage the cell structure, including the cell wall, membrane, and cytoplasm. In particular, the permeability and integrity of the cell membrane were destroyed. When it entered the fungi cell, it interfered with the redox homeostasis and DNA function. Overall, MET can inhibit the growth of C. albicans from multiple channels, such as biofilm, filamentation, cell structure, and intracellular targets, which are difficult to mutate at the same time to generate drug resistance. This work provides a promising lead compound for the creation of new antifungal agents against C. albicans.

Antifungal Activity of Brilacidin, a Nonpeptide Host Defense Molecule

Natural host defensins, also sometimes termed antimicrobial peptides, are evolutionarily conserved. They have been studied as antimicrobials, but some pharmaceutical properties, undesirable for clinical use, have led to the development of synthetic molecules with constructed peptide arrangements and/or peptides not found in nature. The leading development currently is synthetic small-molecule nonpeptide mimetics, whose physical properties capture the characteristics of the natural molecules and share their biological attributes. We studied brilacidin, an arylamide of this type, for its activity in vitro against fungi (40 clinical isolates, 20 species) that the World Health Organization has highlighted as problem human pathogens. We found antifungal activity at low concentrations for many pathogens, which indicates that further screening for activity, particularly in vivo, is justified to evaluate this compound, and other mimetics, as attractive leads for the development of effective antifungal agents.

A promising antifungal lipopeptide from Bacillus subtilis: its characterization and insight into the mode of action

Emerging resistance of fungal pathogens and challenges faced in drug development have prompted renewed investigations into novel antifungal lipopeptides. The antifungal lipopeptide AF3 reported here is a natural lipopeptide isolated and purified from Bacillus subtilis. The AF3 lipopeptide's secondary structure, functional groups, and the presence of amino acid residues typical of lipopeptides were determined by circular dichroism, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The lipopeptide's low minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 4-8 mg/L against several fungal strains demonstrate its strong antifungal activity. Biocompatibility assays showed that ~ 80% of mammalian cells remained viable at a 2 × MIC concentration of AF3. The treated Candida albicans cells examined by scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy clearly showed ultrastructural alterations such as the loss of the cell shape and cell membrane integrity. The antifungal effect of AF3 resulted in membrane permeabilization facilitating the uptake of the fluorescent dyes-acridine orange (AO)/propidium iodide (PI) and FUN-1. Using 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) and 4-(2-[6-(dioctylamino)-2-naphthalenyl] ethenyl)-1-(3-sulfopropyl) pyridinium inner salt (di-8-ANEPPS), we observed that the binding of AF3 to the membrane bilayer results in membrane disruption and depolarization. Flow cytometry analyses revealed a direct correlation between lipopeptide activity, membrane permeabilization (~ 75% PI uptake), and reduced cell viability. An increase in 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) fluorescence demonstrates endogenous reactive oxygen species production. Lipopeptide treatment appears to induce late-stage apoptosis and alterations to nuclear morphology, suggesting that AF3-induced membrane damage may lead to a cellular stress response. Taken together, this study illustrates antifungal lipopeptide's potential as an antifungal drug candidate. KEY POINTS: • The studied lipopeptide variant AF3 displayed potent antifungal activity against C. albicans • Its biological activity was stable to proteolysis • Analytical studies demonstrated that the lipopeptide is essentially membranotropic and able to cause membrane dysfunction, elevated ROS levels, apoptosis, and DNA damage.

Changes in the Ultrastructure of Staphylococcus aureus Cells Make It Possible to Identify and Analyze the Injuring Effects of Ciprofloxacin, Polycationic Amphiphile and Their Hybrid

The purposeful development of synthetic antibacterial compounds requires an understanding of the relationship between effects of compounds and their chemical structure. This knowledge can be obtained by studying changes in bacteria ultrastructure under the action of antibacterial compounds of a certain chemical structure. Our study was aimed at examination of ultrastructural changes in S. aureus cells caused by polycationic amphiphile based on 1,4‒diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DL412), ciprofloxacin and their hybrid (DL5Cip6); the samples were incubated for 15 and 45 min. DL412 first directly interacted with bacterial cell wall, damaging it, then penetrated into the cell and disrupted cytoplasm. Ciprofloxacin penetrated into cell without visually damaging the cell wall, but altered the cell membrane and cytoplasm, and inhibited the division of bacteria. The ultrastructural characteristics of S. aureus cells damaged by the hybrid clearly differed from those under ciprofloxacin or DL412 action. Signs associated with ciprofloxacin predominated in cell damage patterns from the hybrid. We studied the effect of ciprofloxacin, DL412 and their hybrid on S. aureus biofilm morphology using paraffin sections. Clear differences in compound effects on S. aureus biofilm (45 min incubation) were observed. The results obtained allow us to recommend this simple and cheap approach for the initial assessment of antibiofilm properties of synthesized compounds.

Pol32, an accessory subunit of DNA polymerase delta, plays an essential role in genome stability and pathogenesis of Candida albicans

Candida albicans is a pathobiont that inflicts serious bloodstream fungal infections in individuals with compromised immunity and gut dysbiosis. Genomic diversity in the form of copy number alteration, ploidy variation, and loss of heterozygosity as an adaptive mechanism to adverse environments is frequently observed in C. albicans. Such genomic variations also confer a varied degree of fungal virulence and drug resistance, yet the factors propelling these are not completely understood. DNA polymerase delta (Polδ) is an essential replicative DNA polymerase in the eukaryotic cell and is yet to be characterized in C. albicans. Therefore, this study was designed to gain insights into the role of Polδ, especially its non-essential subunit Pol32, in the genome plasticity and life cycle of C. albicans. PCNA, the DNA clamp, recruits Polδ to the replication fork for processive DNA replication. Unlike in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the PCNA interaction protein (PIP) motif of CaPol32 is critical for Polδ's activity during DNA replication. Our comparative genetic analyses and whole-genome sequencing of POL32 proficient and deficient C. albicans cells revealed a critical role of Pol32 in DNA replication, cell cycle progression, and genome stability as SNPs, indels, and repeat variations were largely accumulated in pol32 null strain. The loss of pol32 in C. albicans conferred cell wall deformity; Hsp90 mediated azoles resistance, biofilm development, and a complete attenuation of virulence in an animal model of systemic candidiasis. Thus, although Pol32 is dispensable for cell survival, its function is essential for C. albicans pathogenesis; and we discuss its translational implications in antifungal drugs and whole-cell vaccine development.

Candida albicans Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)-Dependent Lethality and ROS-Independent Hyphal and Biofilm Inhibition by Eugenol and Citral

Candida albicans is part of the normal human flora but is most frequently isolated as the causative opportunistic pathogen of candidiasis. Plant-based essential oils and their components have been extensively studied as antimicrobials, but their antimicrobial impacts are poorly understood. Phenylpropenoids and monoterpenes, for example, eugenol from clove and citral from lemon grass, are potent antifungals against a wide range of pathogens. We report the cellular response of C. albicans to eugenol and citral, alone and combined, using biochemical and microscopic assays. The MICs of eugenol and citral were 1,000 and 256 μg/mL, respectively, with the two exhibiting additive effects based on a fractional inhibitory concentration index of 0.83 ± 0.14. High concentrations of eugenol caused membrane damage, oxidative stress, vacuole segregation, microtubule dysfunction and cell cycle arrest at the G₁/S phase, and while citral had similar impacts, they were reactive oxygen species (ROS) independent. At sublethal concentrations (1/2 to 1/4 MIC), both oils disrupted microtubules and hyphal and biofilm formation in an ROS-independent manner. While both compounds disrupt the cell membrane, eugenol had a greater impact on membrane dysfunction. This study shows that eugenol and citral can induce vacuole and microtubule dysfunction, along with the inhibition of hyphal and biofilm formation. IMPORTANCE Candida albicans is a normal resident on and in the human body that can cause relatively benign infections. However, when our immune system is severely compromised (e.g., cancer chemotherapy patients) or underdeveloped (e.g., newborns), this fungus can become a deadly pathogen, infecting the bloodstream and organs. Since there are only a few effective antifungal agents that can be used to combat fungal infections, these fungi have been exposed to them over and over again, allowing the fungi to develop resistance. Instead of developing antifungal agents that kill the fungi, some of which have undesirable side effects on the human host, researchers have proposed to target the fungal traits that make the fungus more virulent. Here, we show how two components of plant-based essential oils, eugenol and citral, are effective inhibitors of C. albicans virulence traits.

Candida lusitaniae: Biology, Pathogenicity, Virulence Factors, Diagnosis, and Treatment

The incidence of fungal infections is increasing at an alarming rate and has posed a great challenge for science in recent years. The rise in these infections has been related to the increase in immunocompromised patients and the resistance of different species to antifungal drugs. Infections caused by the different Candida species, especially Candida albicans, are one of the most common mycoses in humans, and the etiological agents are considered opportunistic pathogens associated with high mortality rates when disseminated infections occur. Candida lusitaniae is considered an emerging opportunistic pathogen that most frequently affects immunocompromised patients with some comorbidity. Although it is a low-frequency pathogen, and the mortality rate of C. lusitaniae-caused candidemia does not exceed 5%, some isolates are known to be resistant to antifungals such as amphotericin B, 5-fluorocytosine, and fluconazole. In this paper, a detailed review of the current literature on this organism and its different aspects, such as its biology, possible virulence factors, pathogen-host interaction, diagnosis, and treatment of infection, is provided. Of particular interest, through Blastp analysis we predicted possible virulence factors in this species.

Biotherapeutic effect of cell-penetrating peptides against microbial agents: a review

Selective permeability of biological membranes represents a significant barrier to the delivery of therapeutic substances into both microorganisms and mammalian cells, restricting the access of drugs into intracellular pathogens. Cell-penetrating peptides usually 5-30 amino acids with the characteristic ability to penetrate biological membranes have emerged as promising antimicrobial agents for treating infections as well as an effective delivery modality for biological conjugates such as nucleic acids, drugs, vaccines, nanoparticles, and therapeutic antibodies. However, several factors such as antimicrobial resistance and poor drug delivery of the existing medications justify the urgent need for developing a new class of antimicrobials. Herein, we review cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) used to treat microbial infections. Although these peptides are biologically active for infections, effective transduction into membranes and cargo transport, serum stability, and half-life must be improved for optimum functions and development of next-generation antimicrobial agents.

Changes in the Ultrastructure of Staphylococcus aureus Treated with Cationic Peptides and Chlorhexidine

Antimicrobial peptides, including synthetic ones, are becoming increasingly important as a promising tool to fight multidrug-resistant bacteria. We examined the effect of cationic peptides H₂N-Arg₉-Phe₂-C(O)NH₂ and H₂N-(Lys-Phe-Phe)₃-Lys-C(O)NH₂ on Staphylococcus aureus, which remains one of the most harmful pathogens. Antiseptic chlorhexidine served as reference preparation. We studied viability of S. aureus and examined its ultrastructure under treatment with 100 µM of R9F2 or (KFF)3K peptides or chlorhexidine using transmission electron microscopy of ultrathin sections. Bacterial cells were sampled as kinetic series starting from 1 min up to 4 h of treatment with preparations. Both peptides caused clearly visible damage of bacteria cell membrane within 1 min. Incubation of S. aureus with R9F2 or (KFF)3K peptides led to cell wall thinning, loss of cytoplasm structure, formation of mesosome-derived multimembrane structures and "decorated fibers" derived from DNA chains. The effect of R9F2 peptides on S. aureus was more severe than the effect of (KFF)3K peptides. Chlorhexidine heavily damaged the bacteria cell wall, in particular in areas of septa formation, while cytoplasm kept its structure within the observation time. Our study showed that cell membrane damage is critical for S. aureus viability; however, we believe that cell wall disorders should also be taken into account when analyzing the effects of the mechanisms of action of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs).