Impact of Bee Venom Enzymes on Diseases and Immune Responses

Comparison of Muscle Regeneration Effects at Different Melittin Concentrations in Rabbit Atrophied Muscle

This research aimed to explore the healing impacts of Melittin treatment on gastrocnemius muscle wasting caused by immobilization with a cast in rabbits. Twenty-four rabbits were randomly allocated to four groups. The procedures included different injections: 0.2 mL of normal saline to Group 1 (G1-NS); 4 μg/kg of Melittin to Group 2 (G2-4 μg/kg Melittin); 20 μg/kg of Melittin to Group 3 (G3-20 μg/kg Melittin); and 100 μg/kg of Melittin to Group 4 (G4-100 μg/kg Melittin). Ultrasound was used to guide the injections into the rabbits' atrophied calf muscles following two weeks of immobilization via casting. Clinical measurements, including the length of the calf, the compound muscle action potential (CMAP) of the tibial nerve, and the gastrocnemius muscle thickness, were assessed. Additionally, cross-sectional slices of gastrocnemius muscle fibers were examined, and immunohistochemistry and Western blot analyses were performed following two weeks of therapy. The mean regenerative changes, as indicated by clinical parameters, in Group 4 were significantly more pronounced than in the other groups (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the cross-sectional area of the gastrocnemius muscle fibers and immunohistochemical indicators in Group 4 exceeded those in the remaining groups (p < 0.05). Western blot analysis also showed a more significant presence of anti-inflammatory and angiogenic cytokines in Group 4 compared to the others (p < 0.05). Melittin therapy at a higher dosage can more efficiently activate regeneration in atrophied gastrocnemius muscle compared to lower doses of Melittin or normal saline.

Bee venom genotoxicity on Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells - The role of mitochondria and YAP1 transcription factor

The present work aims to clarify the genotype differences of a model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae in response to bee venom. The study evaluated various endpoints including cell survival, induction of physiologically active superoxide anions, mitotic gene conversion, mitotic crossing-over, reverse mutations, DNA double-strand breaks, and Ty1 retrotransposition. The role of the intact mitochondria and the YAP1 transcription factor was also evaluated. Our results indicate a genotype-specific response. The first experimental evidence has been provided that bee venom induces physiologically active superoxide anions and DNA double-strand breaks in S. cerevisiae. The lack of oxidative phosphorylation due to disrupted or missing mitochondrial DNA reduces but not diminishes the cytotoxicity of bee venom. The possible modes of action could be considered direct damage to membranes (cytotoxic effect) and indirect damage to DNA through oxidative stress (genotoxic effect). YAP1 transcription factor was not found to be directly involved in cell defense against bee venom treatment.

Proteomics Analysis to Explore the Resistance Genes of Silkworm to Bombyx mori Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus

The resistance of silkworms to Bombyx mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV) is controlled by a major dominant gene and multiple modifying genes. Given the presence of modified genes, it is difficult to determine the main gene by positional cloning. In this study, the main anti-BmNPV gene of BmNPV-resistant silkworm variety N was introduced into the susceptible variety Su to breed the near-isogenic line SuN with BmNPV resistance. The infection process of BmNPV in the hemolymph of Su and SuN was analyzed using the cell analysis system TissueFAXS PLUS. According to the law of infection and proliferation, hemolymph was extracted every 6 h for two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) analysis and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Seven DEPs were found in comparisons between Su and SuN by 2-DE analysis. Among them, acid phosphatase, storage protein, and phenoloxidase can prevent pathogen invasion, which may play a role against BmNPV. Polyamine oxidase plays an important role in energy metabolism, which may be indirectly involved in the process of resisting BmNPV. Most of the transcriptional expression profiles of the seven DEPs were consistent with the 2-DE results. This study can provide a reference for the identification of anti-BmNPV genes and the breeding of BmNPV-resistant silkworm varieties.

Membranous nephropathy after multiple Hymenoptera stings: a case report

An association between Hymenoptera (bee and wasp) stings and nephrotic syndrome has been rarely reported. We report a case of nephrotic syndrome after multiple Hymenoptera stings, and membranous nephropathy was later diagnosed by a kidney biopsy. The patient was a 79-year-old woman who was stung by Hymenoptera at seven sites on her body. A weight gain of 3.7 kg was observed in the patient at 1 week after being stung, and she had considerable edema in both lower extremities. A urine protein concentration of 14.8 g/g creatinine and a serum albumin concentration of 1.7 g/dL led to the diagnosis of nephrotic syndrome. A percutaneous kidney biopsy 8 days after the Hymenoptera stings showed stage I membranous nephropathy. She was in complete remission 1 week after the administration of oral prednisolone 40 mg/day, which was started 14 days after Hymenoptera stings, and had no relapse of nephrotic syndrome. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of biopsy-proven membranous nephropathy caused by Hymenoptera stings.

Bee Products for Poultry and Rabbits: Current Challenges and Perspectives

Poultry and rabbit production are important and rapidly growing agricultural subsectors, particularly in several developing countries. To ensure the sustainability of poultry and rabbit production, realistic poultry and rabbit farming practices must be improved. Apitherapy is a traditional alternative medicine that involves the prevention and treatment of some diseases with several bee products including propolis, royal jelly, pollen, and venom. More feeding investigations on the numerous benefits of bee products for poultry and rabbits are crucial to be addressed. Poultry and rabbit production has recently experienced numerous challenges, including climate change, disease spread, and antibiotic misuse. Improving animal welfare, health, and production is a top priority for all livestock farms, as is supplying consumers with safe and healthy products. Therefore, this review aims to collect and investigate recent relevant literature on the use of bee products, as feed additives, drinking water supplements, and injections, for poultry and rabbits to improve animal health and production. From the current findings, bee products can improve the growth and immunological performance of small-livestock animals, such as poultry and rabbits, by activating digestive enzymes, maintaining microbial balance, and promoting vitamin synthesis. Therefore, bee products could be a promising natural alternative to growth promoters, reproductive stimulants, and immunological enhancers in poultry and rabbit farms to provide safe and healthy products for humans.

Severe pulmonary-renal syndrome in honeybee sting envenomation - A case report

Honeybee stings with features of envenomation (either local or allergic and rarely systemic toxicity) are often seen in agriculture workers. An initial presentation with severe diffuse alveolar hemorrhage or pulmonary-renal syndrome is rare and only confined to a few case reports. Herein, we describe a case of a 45-year-old male who presented with multiple bee stings and subsequently developed acute kidney injury and pulmonary hemorrhage. He was managed with hemodialysis, invasive mechanical ventilation, red-cell transfusion, and pulse methylprednisolone. However, he developed cardiac arrhythmias with ventricular tachycardia and died.

The effects of maternal care on the developmental transcriptome and metatranscriptome of a wild bee

Maternal care acts as a strong environmental stimulus that can induce phenotypic plasticity in animals and may also alter their microbial communities through development. Here, we characterize the developmental metatranscriptome of the small carpenter bee, Ceratina calcarata, across developmental stages and in the presence or absence of mothers. Maternal care had the most influence during early development, with the greatest number and magnitude of differentially expressed genes between maternal care treatments, and enrichment for transcription factors regulating immune response in motherless early larvae. Metatranscriptomic data revealed fungi to be the most abundant group in the microbiome, with Aspergillus the most abundant in early larvae raised without mothers. Finally, integrative analysis between host transcriptome and metatranscriptome highlights several fungi correlating with developmental and immunity genes. Our results provide characterizations of the influence of maternal care on gene expression and the microbiome through development in a wild bee.

Impact of Truncated Oxidized Phosphatidylcholines on Phospholipase A2 Activity in Mono- and Polyunsaturated Biomimetic Vesicles

The interplay between inflammatory and redox processes is a ubiquitous and critical phenomenon in cell biology that involves numerous biological factors. Among them, secretory phospholipases A₂ (sPLA₂) that catalyze the hydrolysis of the sn-2 ester bond of phospholipids are key players. They can interact or be modulated by the presence of truncated oxidized phosphatidylcholines (OxPCs) produced under oxidative stress from phosphatidylcholine (PC) species. The present study examined this important, but rarely considered, sPLA₂ modulation induced by the changes in biophysical properties of PC vesicles comprising various OxPC ratios in mono- or poly-unsaturated PCs. Being the most physiologically active OxPCs, 1-palmitoyl-2-(5'-oxo-valeroyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POVPC) and 1-palmitoyl-2-glutaryl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PGPC) have been selected for our study. Using fluorescence spectroscopy methods, we compared the effect of OxPCs on the lipid order as well as sPLA₂ activity in large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs) made of the heteroacid PC, either monounsaturated [1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC)], or polyunsaturated [1-palmitoyl-2-docosahexaenoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (PDPC)] at a physiological temperature. The effect of OxPCs on vesicle size was also assessed in both the mono- and polyunsaturated PC matrices. Results: OxPCs decrease the membrane lipid order of POPC and PDPC mixtures with PGPC inducing a much larger decrease in comparison with POVPC, indicative that the difference takes place at the glycerol level. Compared with POPC, PDPC was able to inhibit sPLA₂ activity showing a protective effect of PDPC against enzyme hydrolysis. Furthermore, sPLA₂ activity on its PC substrates was modulated by the OxPC membrane content. POVPC down-regulated sPLA₂ activity, suggesting anti-inflammatory properties of this truncated oxidized lipid. Interestingly, PGPC had a dual and opposite effect, either inhibitory or enhancing on sPLA₂ activity, depending on the protocol of lipid mixing. This difference may result from the chemical properties of the shortened sn-2-acyl chain residues (aldehyde group for POVPC, and carboxyl for PGPC), being, respectively, zwitterionic or anionic under hydration at physiological conditions.

Pharmacokinetics and Tissue Distribution of Bee Venom-Derived Phospholipase A2 Using a Sandwich ELISA after Subcutaneous Injection of New Composition Bee Venom in Rats

Bee venom is a traditional drug used to treat the nervous system, musculoskeletal system, and autoimmune diseases. A previous study found that bee venom and one of its components, phospholipase A2, can protect the brain by suppressing neuroinflammation and can also be used to treat Alzheimer's disease. Thus, new composition bee venom (NCBV), which has an increased phospholipase A2 content of up to 76.2%, was developed as a treatment agent for Alzheimer's disease by INISTst (Republic of Korea). The aim of this study was to characterize the pharmacokinetic profiles of phospholipase A2 contained in NCBV in rats. Single subcutaneous administration of NCBV at doses ranging from 0.2 mg/kg to 5 mg/kg was conducted, and pharmacokinetic parameters of bee venom-derived phospholipase A2 (bvPLA2) increased in a dose-dependent manner. Additionally, no accumulation was observed following multiple dosings (0.5 mg/kg/week), and other constituents of NCBV did not affect the pharmacokinetic profile of bvPLA2. After subcutaneous injection of NCBV, the tissue-to-plasma ratios of bvPLA2 for the tested nine tissues were all <1.0, indicating a limited distribution of the bvPLA2 within the tissues. The findings of this study may help understand the pharmacokinetic characteristics of bvPLA2 and provide useful information for the clinical application of NCBV.

Beneficial Effect of Bee Venom and Its Major Components on Facial Nerve Injury Induced in Mice

Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is a health problem that affects many people worldwide. This study is the first to evaluate the potential effect of bee venom (BV) and its major components in a model of PNI in the mouse. For that, the BV used in this study was analyzed using UHPLC. All animals underwent a distal section-suture of facial nerve branches, and they were randomly divided into five groups. Group 1: injured facial nerve branches without any treatment. Group 2: the facial nerve branches were injured, and the normal saline was injected similarly as in the BV-treated group. Group 3: injured facial nerve branches with local injections of BV solution. Group 4: injured facial nerve branches with local injections of a mixture of PLA2 and melittin. Group 5: injured facial nerve branches with local injection of betamethasone. The treatment was performed three times a week for 4 weeks. The animals were submitted to functional analysis (observation of whisker movement and quantification of nasal deviation). The vibrissae muscle re-innervation was evaluated by retrograde labeling of facial motoneurons in all experimental groups. UHPLC data showed 76.90 ± 0.13%, 11.73 ± 0.13%, and 2.01 ± 0.01%, respectively, for melittin, phospholipase A2, and apamin in the studied BV sample. The obtained results showed that BV treatment was more potent than the mixture of PLA2 and melittin or betamethasone in behavioral recovery. The whisker movement occurred faster in BV-treated mice than in the other groups, with a complete disappearance of nasal deviation two weeks after surgery. Morphologically, a normal fluorogold labeling of the facial motoneurons was restored 4 weeks after surgery in the BV-treated group, but no such restoration was ever observed in other groups. Our findings indicate the potential of the use of BV injections to enhance appropriate functional and neuronal outcomes after PNI.

Characterization, antimicrobial and antitumor activity of superoxide dismutase extracted from Egyptian honeybee venom (Apis mellifera lamarckii)

BACKGROUND

Superoxide dismutase is an important antioxidative stress enzyme which is found in honeybee venom and has a wide pharmaceutical and medical applications.

RESULTS

We reported the purification and characterization of venom SOD from Egyptian honeybee Apis mellifera lamarckii and termed BVSOD. It was purified to homogeneity from the Egyptian honeybee venom. The purification procedures included crude extraction, DEAE-cellulose anion exchange column chromatography, and Sephacryl S-300 gel filtration column chromatography. The purified BVSOD is found to be homogeneous as investigated by native PAGE. It exhibited homodimeric structure with a molecular weight of native form of 32 kDa and subunits of 16.0 kDa. It displayed the maximum activity at pH 7.4. CuCl₂, ZnCl₂, and MgCl₂ and elevated the activity of BVSOD, while CoCl₂, FeCl₂, and NiCl₂ inhibited BVSOD activity. Potassium cyanide and hydrogen peroxide were most potent inhibitors for BVSOD activity suggesting that it is a Cu/Zn-SOD type.

CONCLUSIONS

The purified BVSOD is found to have antimicrobial and antitumor activities which can be used for various medical and clinical applications.

Pharmacological properties and therapeutic potential of honey bee venom

Honey bee venom (BV) is a valuable product, and has a wide range of biological effects, and its use is rapidly increasing in apitherapy. Therefore, the current study, we reviewed the existing knowledge about BV composition and its numerous pharmacological properties for future research and use. Honey bee venom or apitoxin is produced in the venom gland in the honey bee abdomen. Adult bees use it as a primary colony defense mechanism. It is composed of many biologically active substances including peptides, enzymes, amines, amino acids, phospholipids, minerals, carbohydrates as well as some volatile components. Melittin and phospholipase A₂ are the most important components of BV, having anti-cancer, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritis, anti-nociceptive and other curative potentials. Therefore, in medicine, BV has been used for centuries against different diseases like arthritis, rheumatism, back pain, and various inflammatory infections. Nowadays, BV or its components separately, are used for the treatment of various diseases in different countries as a natural medicine with limited side effects. Consequently, scientists as well as several pharmaceutical companies are trying to get a new understanding about BV, its substances and its activity for more effective use of this natural remedy in modern medicine.

Dual Cytotoxic Responses Induced by Treatment of A549 Human Lung Cancer Cells with Sweet Bee Venom in a Dose-Dependent Manner

Objectives

Sweet bee venom (sBV) is purified from Apis mellifera, containing a high level of melittin-its main component. It has been used as a therapeutic agent for pain relief and anti-inflammation, as well as for treating neuronal abnormalities. Recently, there have been studies on the therapeutic application of sBV for anticancer treatment. In the present study, we investigated the pharmacological effect of sBV treatment in A549 human lung cancer cells.

Methods

We used microscopic analysis to observe the morphological changes in A549 cells after sBV treatment. The MTT assay was used to examine the cytotoxic effect after dose-dependent sBV treatment. Molecular changes in sBV were evaluated by the expression of apoptosis marker proteins using western blot analysis.

Results

Microscopic analysis suggested that the growth inhibitory effect occurred in a dose-dependent manner; however, cell lysis occurred at a concentration over 20 μg/mL of sBV. The MTT assay indicated that sBV treatment exhibited a growth inhibitory effect at a concentration over 5 μg/mL. On fluorescence activated cell sorting analysis, G0 dead cells were observed after G1 arrest at treatment concentrations up to 10 μg/mL. However, rapid cell rupture was observed at a concentration of 20 μg/mL. Western blot analysis demonstrated that sBV treatment modulated the expression of multiple cell death-related proteins, including cleaved-PARP, cleaved-caspase 9, p53, Bcl2, and Bax.

Conclusion

sBV induced cell death in A549 human lung cancer cells at a pharmacological concentration, albeit causing hemolytic cell death at a high concentration.

Subchronic Toxicity Study of Alternanthera philoxeroides in Swiss Albino Mice Having Antioxidant and Anticoagulant Activities

Alternanthera philoxeroides, a tropical herb and edible vegetable, has been popular as a medicinal plant. Applying in vitro approach, we initially attempted to assess the phytochemicals, bioactive chemicals, as well as antioxidant and anticoagulant activities of this plant. Following that, the in vivo toxicological effects of methanolic extracts of A. philoxeroides using different doses on the kidney, heart, lung, liver, stomach, brain, and blood of female Swiss Albino mice were investigated. We estimated phytochemicals content as well as antioxidant activity through DPPH, NO, CUPRAC, and reducing power assays, followed by the anticoagulant activities of PT  and aPTT  and bioactive compounds using HPLC. To confirm the biocompatibility of A. philoxeroides extracts, histopathological and hematological parameters were examined in a mice model. Total phenol, flavonoid, and tannin content in A. philoxeroides was 181.75 ± 2.47 mg/g, 101.5 ± 3 .53 mg/g, and 68.58 ± 0.80 mg/g, respectively. Furthermore, the HPLC study confirmed the presence of four phenolic compounds: catechin, tannic acid, gallic acid, and vanillic acid. The methanolic extract of A. philoxeroides showed considerable antioxidant activity in all four antioxidant assay methods when compared to the standard. In comparison to ascorbic acid, A. philoxeroides also demonstrated a minor concentration-dependent ferric and cupric reduction activity. In vivo evaluation indicated that A. philoxeroides extracts (doses: 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg) had no negative effects on the relative organ or body weight, or hematological indicators. Our study concluded that A. philoxeroides had significant antioxidant and anticoagulant activities and demonstrated no negative effects on the body or relative organ weight, histopathological, and hematological indices in the mouse model.

Therapeutic Potential of Bee and Scorpion Venom Phospholipase A2 (PLA2): A Narrative Review

Venomous arthropods such as scorpions and bees form one of the important groups with an essential role in medical entomology. Their venom possesses a mixture of diverse compounds, such as peptides, some of which have toxic effects, and enzymatic peptide Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) with a pharmacological potential in the treatment of a wide range of diseases. Bee and scorpion venom PLA2 group III has been used in immunotherapy, the treatment of neurodegenerative and inflammatory diseases. They were assessed for antinociceptive, wound healing, anti-cancer, anti-viral, anti-bacterial, anti-parasitic, and anti-angiogenesis effects. PLA2 has been identified in different species of scorpions and bees. The anti-leishmania, anti-bacterial, anti-viral, and anti-malarial activities of scorpion PLA2 still need further investigation. Many pieces of research have been stopped in the laboratory stage, and several studies need vast investigation in the clinical phase to show the pharmacological potential of PLA2. In this review, the medical significance of PLA2 from the venom of two arthropods, namely bees and scorpions, is discussed.

Microbiological investigation study for Apis mellifera yemenitica and Apis mellifera carnica bee venoms on selected bacterial strains

Bees are one of the ancient and the most social insects worldwide. They are of great economic and medical importance. Bee venom (BV) has many therapeutic effects and has been used since ancient times for the treatment of many diseases. The present study aimed to evaluate and compare the antibacterial effect of BV from two different bee subspecies Apis mellifera yemenitica (A. m. yemenitica) (indigenous strain) and Apis mellifera carnica (A. m. carnica) (carniolan strain) against selected Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Experimentally, venoms were extracted using an electrical venom collector from honey bee colonies of the subspecies, A. m. yemenitica and A. m. carnica, in Hail, Saudi Arabia. Each venom was tested against selected medically important Gram-negative strains, Salmonella Typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli, while Staphylococcus aureus was selected as Gram-positive test organism. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) method was used to compare the effect of BV from the two subspecies on the growth of the selected bacterial strains. Results showed that BV from both subspecies could equally inhibit the growth of Salmonella Typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli at an MIC of 10 mg/ml. However, S. aureus was inhibited by an MIC of 5 and 10 mg/ml of BV from A. m. carnica and A. m. yemenitica, respectively. This suggested that the BV of the carnica subspecie was more inhibitory to this Gram-positive pathogen than its counterpart produced by the yemenitica subspecies. The present study shows that bee venom has a promising antibacterial effect.

Apis mellifera syriaca Venom: Evaluation of Its Anticoagulant Effect, Proteolytic Activity, and Cytotoxicity along with Its Two Main Compounds-MEL and PLA2-On HeLa Cancer Cells

Bee venom (BV) is one of the most remarkable natural products that has been a subject of studies since ancient times. Recent studies have shown that Apis mellifera syriaca venom possesses antibacterial as well as cytotoxic effects on cancer cell lines. The venom contains a variety of bioactive molecules—mainly melittin (MEL) and phospholipase A2 (PLA2), as well as other compounds that are not well characterized. In this work, we continue the biological characterization of A. mellifera syriaca venom by testing its anticoagulant effect on human plasma using the prothrombin time (PT) test, as well as assessing its proteolytic activity. In addition, the cytotoxicity of the crude venom—and of its two main components, MEL and PLA2—was tested on HeLa cancer cell lines for the first time. The results obtained showed the capacity of A. mellifera syriaca venom to increase clotting time, thereby proving its anticoagulant effect. Moreover, the venom did not demonstrate a significant proteolytic activity unless administrated at concentrations ≥ 5 mg/mL. Finally, we showed that crude A. mellifera syriaca venom, along with MEL, exhibit a strong in vitro cytotoxic effect on HeLa cancer cell lines, even at low concentrations. In summary, our findings could serve as a basis for the development of new natural-based drug candidates in the therapeutic field.

Analytical methods for honeybee venom characterization

The discovery of new drugs has benefited significantly from the development of research in venomics, increasing our understanding of the envenomation processes. It has been previously reported that honeybee venom (HBV) exhibits several pharmacological activities such as anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antimutagenic, radioprotective, and anticancer activity and may inclusively act as a complementary treatment for SARS-CoV-2. It composition consists mainly on melittin, phospholipase A2, and apamin but other constituents such as hyaluronidase, mast cell degranulating peptide and secapin are also relevant for its bioactivity. However, and because HBV is not officially recognized as a drug, until now, the international community did not establish quality standards for it. To uncover its exact composition, and boost the discovery of HBV-derived drugs, a significant number of techniques were developed. In this review, a relevant overview of the so far published analytical methods for HBV characterization is organized with the aim to accelerate its future standardization. The literature search was performed within PubMed, Google Scholar, and Science Direct by selecting specific documents and exploring HBV evaluation.

Antifungal and antibiofilm activities of bee venom loaded on chitosan nanoparticles: a novel approach for combating fungal human pathogens

The prevalence of opportunistic human fungal pathogens is increasing worldwide, and antimicrobial resistance is one of the greatest medical challenges the world faces. Therefore, this study aimed to develop a novel agent to control fungal pathogens. The honeybee products (honey, royal jelly, propolis, bee bread, and bee venom) were screened against unicellular fungal (UCF) pathogens (Cryptococcus neoformans, Kodamaea ohmeri, and Candida albicans) and the bee venom was only exhibited an inhibitory effect against them. The protein contents of crude bee venom were separated using the gel filtration technique into eight fractions which were visualized on sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS–PAGE) to confirm the presence of five bands with molecular weights of 65, 43, 21, 15, and 3 KDa. Bee venom (BV) of Apis mellifera loaded chitosan nanoparticles were prepared by the ionotropic gelation method. The encapsulation efficiency%, average size, zeta potentials, and surface appearance by Transmission electron microscope (TEM) were evaluated for the prepared nanoparticles. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of crude BV and BV loaded chitosan nanoparticles (BV-CNPs) was evaluated against the offer mentioned UCF where the MIC values of crude BV were 6.25, 3.12 & 6.25 while MIC values in the case of BV-CNPs were decreased to 3.12, 3.12 & 1.56 mg/ml against C. neoformans, K. ohmeri and C. albicans, respectively. Also, the results showed that BV-CNPs suppressed the biofilm formation as well as yeast to hyphal transition formed by the examined UCF. These results revealed that BV-CNPs are a promising natural compound for fungal pathogens treatment.

A Case of Newly Developed Pemphigus Foliaceus and Possible Association with Alternative Bee-Venom Therapy

Bee-venom is composed of a variety of peptides, enzymes, and biogenic amines, and is demonstrated to have both antiinflammatory and immune-stimulatory effects in human body. Pemphigus foliaceus (PF) is a variant of pemphigus, which is a rare autoimmune bullous disease presenting with erythematous scaly crusted plaques. Although the exact pathogenesis was not identified, there have been three case reports of autoimmune disorders associated with bee-venom. In this case, a 64-year-old female was diagnosed with PF, which was developed after alternative bee-venom acupuncture therapy. We assumed that the bee-venom caused the diseases through a temporal relationship and its known immunostimulatory action. Herein, we suggest that physicians recognize the possibility of bee-venom stimulating the immune system and triggering various autoimmune diseases including pemphigus.

Apamin Enhances Neurite Outgrowth and Regeneration after Laceration Injury in Cortical Neurons

Apamin is a minor component of bee venom and is a polypeptide with 18 amino acid residues. Although apamin is considered a neurotoxic compound that blocks the potassium channel, its neuroprotective effects on neurons have been recently reported. However, there is little information about the underlying mechanism and very little is known regarding the toxicological characterization of other compounds in bee venom. Here, cultured mature cortical neurons were treated with bee venom components, including apamin, phospholipase A2, and the main component, melittin. Melittin and phospholipase A2 from bee venom caused a neurotoxic effect in dose-dependent manner, but apamin did not induce neurotoxicity in mature cortical neurons in doses of up to 10 µg/mL. Next, 1 and 10 µg/mL of apamin were applied to cultivate mature cortical neurons. Apamin accelerated neurite outgrowth and axon regeneration after laceration injury. Furthermore, apamin induced the upregulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and neurotrophin nerve growth factor, as well as regeneration-associated gene expression in mature cortical neurons. Due to its neurotherapeutic effects, apamin may be a promising candidate for the treatment of a wide range of neurological diseases.

A Review of Honeybee Venom Allergens and Allergenicity

Honeybee venom is a source of proteins with allergenic properties which can result in in various symptoms, ranging from local reactions through to systematic life-threatening anaphylaxis, or even death. According to the World Allergy Organization (WAO), honeybee venom allergy is one of the most common causes of anaphylaxis. Among the proteins present in honeybee venom, 12 protein fractions were registered by the World Health Organization’s Allergen Nomenclature Sub-Committee (WHO/IUIS) as allergenic. Most of them are highly immunogenic glycoproteins that cross-react with IgE and, as a consequence, may give false positive results in allergy diagnosis. Allergenic fractions are different in terms of molecular weight and biological activity. Eight of these allergenic fractions have also been identified in honey. This explains frequent adverse reactions after consuming honey in people allergic to venom and sheds new light on the causes of allergic symptoms in some individuals after honey consumption. At the same time, it also indicates the possibility of using honey as a natural source of allergen in specific immunotherapy.

Anti-fibrinolytic activity of a metalloprotease inhibitor from bumblebee (Bombus ignitus) venom

Bee venom is a mixture of bioactive components that include proteases and protease inhibitors. A metalloprotease inhibitor has been predicted to be a bumblebee-specific toxin in the venom proteome of Bombus terrestris; however, the identification and functional roles of bee venom metalloprotease inhibitors have not been previously determined. In this study, we identified a bumblebee (B. ignitus) venom metalloprotease inhibitor (BiVMPI) that exhibits anti-fibrinolytic activity. BiVMPI contains a trypsin inhibitor-like cysteine-rich domain that exhibits similarity to inducible metalloprotease inhibitor. Using an anti-BiVMPI antibody raised against a recombinant BiVMPI protein produced in baculovirus-infected insect cells, the presence of BiVMPI in the venom gland and secreted venom of B. ignitus worker bees was confirmed. The recombinant BiVMPI protein demonstrated inhibitory activity against a metalloprotease, trypsin, chymotrypsin, protease K, and plasmin, but not subtilisin A, elastase, or thrombin. Additionally, the recombinant BiVMPI bound to plasmin and inhibited the plasmin-mediated degradation of fibrin, demonstrating an anti-fibrinolytic role for BiVMPI as a bee venom metalloprotease inhibitor. Our results provide the first evidence for the identification and anti-fibrinolytic activity of a metalloprotease inhibitor from bee venom.

Sustainable Pest Management Using Biodegradable Apitoxin-Loaded Calcium-Alginate Microspheres

Alternatives and replacements for synthetic chemical-based plant protectants are required. In this study biopolymeric microspheres containing arthropod-derived apitoxin are explored as a possible novel environmentally friendly formulation for plant protection. Here we document the optimization process for microencapsulation of apitoxin into a stable formulation, for ready use in agricultural applications. Efficacy trials were carried out on three different beetle species at various developmental stages (Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say, 1824.), Tenebrio molitor (Linnaeus, 1758.), Sitophilus granarius (Linnaeus, 1758.)). The encapsulated apitoxin has a steady initial and long residual effect, due to the slow release of apitoxin which is one of its main advantages over other conventional control methods. Microspheres loaded with apitoxin have a detrimental effect on insects, of which it is significantly better gastric compared to contact action (due to pH). The results showed that the highest and fastest mortality was obtained when the highest concentrations (0.6%) were applied, chosen to be economically acceptable. These important findings contribute to knowledge on the application and development of encapsulated apitoxin formulations, and their effectiveness, as an alternative eco-friendly control method in agricultural production.

Lipolytic Activity of a Carboxylesterase from Bumblebee (Bombus ignitus) Venom

Bee venom is a complex mixture composed of peptides, proteins with enzymatic properties, and low-molecular-weight compounds. Although the carboxylesterase in bee venom has been identified as an allergen, the enzyme's role as a venom component has not been previously elucidated. Here, we show the lipolytic activity of a bumblebee (Bombus ignitus) venom carboxylesterase (BivCaE). The presence of BivCaE in the venom secreted by B. ignitus worker bees was confirmed using an anti-BivCaE antibody raised against a recombinant BivCaE protein produced in baculovirus-infected insect cells. The enzymatic activity of the recombinant BivCaE protein was optimal at 40 °C and pH 8.5. Recombinant BivCaE protein degrades triglycerides and exhibits high lipolytic activity toward long-chain triglycerides, defining the role of BivCaE as a lipolytic agent. Bee venom phospholipase A₂ binds to mammalian cells and induces apoptosis, whereas BivCaE does not affect mammalian cells. Collectively, our data demonstrate that BivCaE functions as a lipolytic agent in bee venom, suggesting that BivCaE will be involved in distributing the venom via degradation of blood triglycerides.

An integrated transcriptomic and proteomic approach to identify the main Torymus sinensis venom components

During oviposition, ectoparasitoid wasps not only inject their eggs but also a complex mixture of proteins and peptides (venom) in order to regulate the host physiology to benefit their progeny. Although several endoparasitoid venom proteins have been identified, little is known about the components of ectoparasitoid venom. To characterize the protein composition of Torymus sinensis Kamijo (Hymenoptera: Torymidae) venom, we used an integrated transcriptomic and proteomic approach and identified 143 venom proteins. Moreover, focusing on venom gland transcriptome, we selected additional 52 transcripts encoding putative venom proteins. As in other parasitoid venoms, hydrolases, including proteases, phosphatases, esterases, and nucleases, constitute the most abundant families in T. sinensis venom, followed by protease inhibitors. These proteins are potentially involved in the complex parasitic syndrome, with different effects on the immune system, physiological processes and development of the host, and contribute to provide nutrients to the parasitoid progeny. Although additional in vivo studies are needed, initial findings offer important information about venom factors and their putative host effects, which are essential to ensure the success of parasitism.

Bee venom phospholipase A2 alleviates collagen-induced polyarthritis by inducing Foxp3+ regulatory T cell polarization in mice

The mechanism underlying bee venom (BV) therapy is still controversial, with opinions ranging from constituent-based pharmacological action to homeopathic-like activity. The purpose of this study was to examine whether BV phospholipase A2 (bvPLA2), an enzymatic component of BV, is a novel anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic mediator capable of stimulating CD25+ Foxp3+ regulatory T cell (Treg) polarization in a mouse model of human rheumatoid arthritis (RA). An experimental model of RA was established in male DBA/1 mouse by 2-week-interval injections of 100 μg type II collagen emulsified in complete (first injection) or incomplete Freund's adjuvant (second injection) at the base of the tail. During arthritis development, bvPLA2 (0.1, 0.5, 1.0 mg/kg) and/or Treg inhibitors such as anti-CD25 antibodies and peptide 60 (P60) were injected intraperitoneally for 5 weeks. Arthritic symptoms and the expansion of Tregs were then assessed by behavioral assessments, histological and micro-CT imaging, and flow cytometry. bvPLA2 injections significantly alleviated arthritic behaviors such as squeaking and joint swelling, consistent with changes seen on both histological and micro-CT images. The anti-arthritic effects of bvPLA2 were blocked by intraperitoneal injections of 0.25 mg/kg anti-CD25 antibody and 10 μg/kg P60, as determined by behavioral assessments. Flow cytometric analysis of dendritic cells, B cells, and major T cell subsets from spleens revealed a significant depletion of Tregs following anti-CD25 antibody, but not P60, treatment. bvPLA2 treatment exerted significant anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activities in a mouse model of RA via the induction of Tregs.

New Insights Into Potential Benefits of Bioactive Compounds of Bee Products on COVID-19: A Review and Assessment of Recent Research

The recent emergence of COVID-19 represents one of the biggest challenges facing the world today. Despite the recent attempts to understand the epidemiological pattern and pathogenesis of the disease, detailed data about the physiology and pathology of the disease is still out of reach. Moreover, the lack of a widespread vaccine prompts an urgent call for developing a proper intervention strategy against the virus. Importantly, identification of novel molecules that target replication of the virus represents one of the promising strategies for the control this pandemic crisis. Among others, honey bee products contain numerous bioactive compounds such as propolis and several phenolic compounds that possess a wide range of therapeutic properties for combating various pathological disorders and infectious agents. The intention of the present review is to highlight the stages of SARS-CoV-2 lifecycle, the molecular mechanisms explaining the health benefits of honey bee products on COVID-19 physiology and pathology and the possible limitations. Further future research is suggested to explore more about bee natural bioactive compounds as potential candidates against SARS-CoV-2.

Bee venom attenuates neurodegeneration and motor impairment and modulates the response to L-dopa or rasagiline in a mice model of Parkinson's disease

Objectives

This study aimed to investigate the effect of bee venom, a form of alternative therapy, on rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease (PD) in mice. Moreover, the possible modulation by bee venom of the effect of L-dopa/carbidopa or rasagiline was examined.

Materials and Methods

Rotenone (1.5 mg/kg, subcutaneously; SC) was administered every other day for two weeks and at the same time mice received the vehicle (DMSO, SC), bee venom (0.065, 0.13, and 0.26 mg/kg; intradermal; ID), L-dopa/carbidopa (25 mg/kg, intraperitoneal; IP), L-dopa/carbidopa+bee venom (0.13 mg/kg, ID), rasagiline (1 mg/kg, IP) or rasagiline+bee venom (0.13 mg/kg, ID). Then, wire hanging and staircase tests were performed and mice were euthanized and brains' striata separated. Oxidative stress biomarkers namely, malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO), reduced glutathione (GSH), paraoxonase-1 (PON-1), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) were measured. Additionally, butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and dopamine (DA) were evaluated. Brain histopathological changes and caspase-3- expression were done.

Results

Bee venom significantly enhanced motor performance and inhibited rotenone-induced oxidative/nitrosative stress, observed as a reduction in both MDA and NO along with increasing GSH, PON-1, and TAC. Besides, bee venom decreased MCP-1, TNF-α, and caspase-3 expression together with an increase in BuChE activity and DA content.

Conclusion

Bee venom alone or in combination with L-dopa/carbidopa or rasagiline alleviated neuronal degeneration compared with L-dopa/carbidopa or rasagiline treatment only. Bee venom via its antioxidant and cytokine reducing potentials might be of value either alone or as adjunctive therapy in the management of PD.

Immunomodulatory properties of molecules from animal venoms

The immune system can amplify or decrease the strength of its response when it is stimulated by chemical or biological substances that act as immunostimulators, immunosuppressants, or immunoadjuvants. Immunomodulation is a progressive approach to treat a diversity of pathologies with promising results, including autoimmune disorders and cancer. Animal venoms are a mixture of chemical compounds that include proteins, peptides, amines, salts, polypeptides, enzymes, among others, which produce the toxic effect. Since the discovery of captopril in the early 1980s, other components from snakes, spiders, scorpions, and marine animal venoms have been demonstrated to be useful for treating several human diseases. The valuable progress in fields such as venomics, molecular biology, biotechnology, immunology, and others has been crucial to understanding the interaction of toxins with the immune system and its application on immune pathologies. More in-depth knowledge of venoms' components and multi-disciplinary studies could facilitate their transformation into effective novel immunotherapies. This review addresses advances and research of molecules from venoms that have immunomodulatory properties.

Bee Venom in Wound Healing

Bee venom (BV), also known as api-toxin, is widely used in the treatment of different inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis or multiple sclerosis. It is also known that BV can improve the wound healing process. BV plays a crucial role in the modulation of the different phases of wound repair. It possesses anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antifungal, antiviral, antimicrobial and analgesic properties, all of which have a positive impact on the wound healing process. The mentioned process consists of four phases, i.e., hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation and remodeling. The impaired wound healing process constitutes a significant problem especially in diabetic patients, due to hypoxia state. It had been found that BV accelerated the wound healing in diabetic patients as well as in laboratory animals by impairing the caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9 activity. Moreover, the activity of BV in wound healing is associated with regulating the expression of transforming growth factor (TGF-β1), vascular endothelial growth factor and increased collagen type I. BV stimulates the proliferation and migration of human epidermal keratinocytes and fibroblasts. In combination with polyvinyl alcohol and chitosan, BV significantly accelerates the wound healing process, increasing the hydroxyproline and glutathione and lowering the IL-6 level in wound tissues. The effect of BV on the wounds has been proved by numerous studies, which revealed that BV in the wound healing process brings about a curative effect and could be applied as a new potential treatment for wound repair. However, therapy with bee venom may induce allergic reactions, so it is necessary to assess the existence of the patient’s hypersensitivity to apitoxin before treatment.

Cytotoxic Effect of Bee (A. mellifera) Venom on Cancer Cell Lines

Objectives

Nowadays cancer treatment is an important challenge in the medical world that needs better therapies. Many active secretions produced by insects such as honey bees used to discover new anticancer drugs. Bee venom (BV) has a potent anti inflammatory, anti cancer and tumor effects. The aim of present study is evaluation of anticancer effects induced by Apis mellifera venom (AmV) on cell Lines.

Methods

AmV was selected for study on cancer cell lines. Total protein, molecular weight and LD₅₀ of crude venom were determined. Then, cells were grown in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle medium supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 1% antibiotics. The A₅₄₉, HeLa and MDA-MB-231 cell Lines were exposed by different concentration of AmV. The morphology of cells was determined and cell viability was studed by MTT assay. Evaluation of cell death was determined by and DNA fragmentation.

Results

The results from MTT assay showed that 3.125 µg/mL of A₅₄₉, 12.5 for HeLa and 6.25 µg/mL of MDA-MB-231 killed 50% of cells (p < 0.05). Morphological analysis and the results from hoescht staining and DNA fragmentation indicated that cell death induced by AmV was significantly apoptosis.

Conclusion

The data showed that using lower dosage of AmV during treatment period cause inhibition of proliferation in time and dose dependant manner. Findings indicated that some ingredients of AmV have anticancer effects and with further investigation it can be used in production of anticancer drugs.

Bee Venom: An Updating Review of Its Bioactive Molecules and Its Health Applications

Bee venom (BV) is usually associated with pain since, when humans are stung by bees, local inflammation and even an allergic reaction can be produced. BV has been traditionally used in ancient medicine and in acupuncture. It consists of a mixture of substances, principally of proteins and peptides, including enzymes as well as other types of molecules in a very low concentration. Melittin and phospholipase A2 (PLA2) are the most abundant and studied compounds of BV. Literature of the main biological activities exerted by BV shows that most studies focuses on the comprehension and test of anti-inflammatory effects and its mechanisms of action. Other properties such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, neuroprotective or antitumor effects have also been assessed, both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, human trials are necessary to confirm those clinical applications. However, notwithstanding the therapeutic potential of BV, there are certain problems regarding its safety and the possible appearance of adverse effects. On this perspective, new approaches have been developed to avoid these complications. This manuscript is aimed at reviewing the actual knowledge on BV components and its associated biological activities as well as the latest advances on this subject.

Investigation of anti-inflammatory effects of bee venom in experimentally induced adjuvant arthritis

Objectives

Rheumatoid arthritis is a multisystemic inflammatory disease characterized by destruction of the joints. An effective treatment method of the disease has not been developed yet. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effects of bee (Apis mellifera anatoliaca) venom (BV) on serum inflammatory parameters, serum antioxidant load and clinical parameters of experimentally induced adjuvant arthritis in rats.

Material and methods

A total of 35 Wistar albino male rats were used. The animals were divided into 5 groups. First group animals served as negative controls. The second, third, fourth and fifth groups were used for experimental arthritis induction. Following clinical development of arthritis, the first group was subcutaneously administered 0.2 ml of physiological saline, and the second, third and fourth groups were treated subcutaneously with 2 µg/kg, 4 µg/kg and 20 µg/kg once a week three times. Physiological saline injected fifth group animals were used as a sham-treatment group. Clinical observations and evaluation of arthritis were made at the 15^th day, and at the end of the experiment. The levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase, paraoxonase, serum aryl esterase, high-sensitivity C reactive protein, interleukin 1β (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) were determined in cardiac blood samples taken at the end of the 29^th day.

Results

From the data, total oxidant level (TOL) and oxidative stress index (OSI) were calculated. Significant improvements were observed in the clinical signs of arthritis and inflammatory markers such as in IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6 and TOL and OSI in the 20.0 µg/kg BV-administered group. Bee venom administration did not cause any significant increase in ALT and AST values or signs of liver toxicity.

Conclusions

Bee venom treatment was effective in alleviation of symptoms of the experimental rat adjuvant arthritis by means of clinical observation and serum inflammatory markers.

Effect of natural extract eye drops in dry eye disease rats

AIM

To investigate the therapeutic effect of natural extract eye drops containing bee venom, musk, and deer antlers in dry eye disease (DED) animal models.

METHODS

Scopolamine-injected DED rats and lacrimal gland-excised rats were allocated into control, saline, and natural extract groups respectively and a normal group (lacrimal gland excision was not performed) in lacrimal gland-excised rats. After eye drop instillation 4 times a day for 5d, corneal fluorescein staining (CFS) scores, tear MUC5AC levels, and tear lactic dehydrogenase (LDH) levels were measured.

RESULTS

In scopolamine-injected rats, the natural extract-treated group had significantly lower CFS scores (1.7±0.5, 4.7±1.4, 3.8±1.9, P=0.006) and tear LDH levels (0.10±0.01, 0.19±0.01, 0.16±0.08 OD, P=0.014) but higher tear MUC5AC levels (12.9±3.7, 7.9±2.0, 9.7±3.6 ng/mL, P=0.041) compared with the control and saline-treated groups. There were no significant differences between the control and saline-treated groups. In lacrimal gland-excised rats, the natural extract-treated group also had lower CFS scores (4.3±1.2, 11.5±2.3, 9.0±1.9, P<0.001, P=0.001) and tear LDH levels (0.30±0.08, 0.48±0.12, 0.39±0.05 OD, P<0.05) but higher tear volume (4.3±0.9, 1.9±0.7, 2.8±1.1 mm, P=0.005, P=0.124) and tear MUC5AC levels (8.2±2.0, 2.9±1.2, 5.4±2.2 ng/mL, P<0.001, P=0.047) compared with the control and saline-treated groups. There were no significant differences in the CFS scores, tear MUC5AC level, and tear LDH level between the normal and natural extract-treated groups.

CONCLUSION

The natural extract consisting of bee venom, musk, and deer antlers may have effectiveness in DED treatment by restoring the damaged ocular surface, increasing tear volume, and recovering the tear mucin layer in DED rats.

Bee Venom Phospholipase A2 Induces Regulatory T Cell Populations by Suppressing Apoptotic Signaling Pathway

Bee venom phospholipase A2 is a lipolytic enzyme in bee venom that catalyzes hydrolysis of the sn-2 ester bond of membrane phospholipids to produce free fatty acid and lysophospholipids. Current evidence suggests that bee venom phospholipase A2 (bvPLA2) induces regulatory T cell expansion and attenuates several immune system-related diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. The induction of Treg cells is directly mediated by binding to mannose receptors on dendritic cells. This interaction induces the PGE2-EP2 signaling pathway, which promotes Treg induction in CD4⁺ T cells. In this study, we investigated the effects of bvPLA2 treatment on the apoptotic signaling pathway in Treg populations. Flow cytometry was performed to identify early apoptotic cells. As a result, early apoptotic cells were dramatically decreased in bvPLA2-treated splenocytes, whereas rapamycin-treated cells showed levels of apoptotic cells similar to those of PBS-treated cells. Furthermore, bvPLA2 treatment increased expression of anti-apoptotic molecules including CTLA-4 and PD-1. The survival rate increased in bvPLA2-treated Tregs. Our findings indicate that bvPLA2-mediated modulation of apoptotic signaling is strongly associated with the Treg induction, which exhibits protective effects against various immune-related diseases. To our knowledge, this study is the first to demonstrate that bvPLA2 is the major bee venom (BV) compound capable of inducing Treg expansion through altering apoptotic signal.

Bee Updated: Current Knowledge on Bee Venom and Bee Envenoming Therapy

Honey bees can be found all around the world and fulfill key pollination roles within their natural ecosystems, as well as in agriculture. Most species are typically docile, and most interactions between humans and bees are unproblematic, despite their ability to inject a complex venom into their victims as a defensive mechanism. Nevertheless, incidences of bee stings have been on the rise since the accidental release of Africanized bees to Brazil in 1956 and their subsequent spread across the Americas. These bee hybrids are more aggressive and are prone to attack, presenting a significant healthcare burden to the countries they have colonized. To date, treatment of such stings typically focuses on controlling potential allergic reactions, as no specific antivenoms against bee venom currently exist. Researchers have investigated the possibility of developing bee antivenoms, but this has been complicated by the very low immunogenicity of the key bee toxins, which fail to induce a strong antibody response in the immunized animals. However, with current cutting-edge technologies, such as phage display, alongside the rise of monoclonal antibody therapeutics, the development of a recombinant bee antivenom is achievable, and promising results towards this goal have been reported in recent years. Here, current knowledge on the venom biology of Africanized bees and current treatment options against bee envenoming are reviewed. Additionally, recent developments within next-generation bee antivenoms are presented and discussed.

Suppressive Effects of Bee Venom-Derived Phospholipase A2 on Mechanical Allodynia in a Rat Model of Neuropathic Pain

Bee venom (BV) has a long history of being used in traditional Korean medicine to relieve pain. Here, we investigated the effect of BV-derived phospholipase A2 (bvPLA2), a major component of BV, on peripheral nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain in rats. Spinal nerve ligation (SNL) was performed in Sprague Dawley rats to induce neuropathic pain, and paw withdrawal thresholds were measured using von Frey test. Mechanical allodynia, the representative symptom of neuropathic pain, was manifested following SNL and persisted for several weeks. The repetitive bvPLA2 treatment (0.2 mg/kg/day, i.p.) for two days significantly relieved the SNL-induced mechanical allodynia. The antiallodynic effect of bvPLA2 was blocked by spinal pretreatment with α1-adrenergic antagonist prazosin (30 μg, i.t.) but not with α2-adrenergic antagonist idazoxan (50 μg, i.t.). Also, the spinal application of α1-adrenergic agonist phenylephrine (50 μg, i.t.) reduced mechanical allodynia. These results indicate that bvPLA2 could relieve nerve injury-induced neuropathic mechanical allodynia through the activation of spinal α1-adrenergic receptors.

Bee Venom: Overview of Main Compounds and Bioactivities for Therapeutic Interests

Apitherapy is an alternate therapy that relies on the usage of honeybee products, most importantly bee venom for the treatment of many human diseases. The venom can be introduced into the human body by manual injection or by direct bee stings. Bee venom contains several active molecules such as peptides and enzymes that have advantageous potential in treating inflammation and central nervous system diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Moreover, bee venom has shown promising benefits against different types of cancer as well as anti-viral activity, even against the challenging human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Many studies described biological activities of bee venom components and launched preclinical trials to improve the potential use of apitoxin and its constituents as the next generation of drugs. The aim of this review is to summarize the main compounds of bee venom, their primary biological properties, mechanisms of action, and their therapeutic values in alternative therapy strategies.

Dose-Dependent Neuroprotective Effect of Standardized Bee Venom Phospholipase A2 Against MPTP-Induced Parkinson's Disease in Mice

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a chronic progressive neurodegenerative movement disorder characterized by the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons within the substantia nigra (SN). While the precise etiology of dopaminergic neuronal demise is elusive, multiple lines of evidence indicate that neuroinflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of PD. We have previously demonstrated that subcutaneous administration of bee venom (BV) phospholipase A₂ (bvPLA₂) suppresses dopaminergic neuronal cell death in a PD mouse model. In the present study, we established standardized methods for producing bvPLA₂ agent isolated from crude BV at good manufacturing practice (GMP) facility. The therapeutic efficacy of purified bvPLA2 agent was examined in MPTP-induced PD mice. Importantly, administration of purified bvPLA₂ in a dose-dependent manner reversed motor deficits in PD mice as well as inhibited loss of dopaminergic neurons within the SN of PD mice. The concentration-dependent action of standardized bvPLA₂ appeared to be related to the induction of CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs), which, in part, inhibits T helper 1 (Th1) and Th17 polarization and suppresses microglial activation in PD mice. Taken together, these results suggest that standardized bvPLA₂ purified from BV shows a neuroprotective effect against PD and thus has a potential target for treatment of PD.

Revisiting Polybia paulista wasp venom using shotgun proteomics - Insights into the N-linked glycosylated venom proteins

The partial proteome of Polybia paulista wasp venom was previously reported elsewhere using a gel-dependent approach and resulted in the identification of a limited number of venom toxins. Here, we reinvestigated the P. paulista venom using a gel-free shotgun proteomic approach; the highly dynamic range of this approach facilitated the detection and identification of 1673 proteins, of which 23 venom proteins presented N-linked glycosylation as a posttranslational modification. Three different molecular forms of PLA1 were identified as allergenic proteins, and two of these forms were modified by N-linked glycosylation. This study reveals an extensive repertoire of hitherto undescribed proteins that were classified into the following six different functional groups: (i) typical venom proteins; (ii) proteins related to the folding/conformation and PTMs of toxins; (iii) proteins that protect toxins from oxidative stress; (iv) proteins involved in chemical communication; (v) housekeeping proteins; and (vi) uncharacterized proteins. It was possible to identify venom toxin-like proteins that are commonly reported in other animal venoms, including arthropods such as spiders and scorpions. Thus, the findings reported here may contribute to improving our understanding of the composition of P. paulista venom, its envenoming mechanism and the pathologies experienced by the victim after the wasp stinging accident. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE: The present study significantly expanded the number of proteins identified in P. paulista venom, contributing to improvements in our understanding of the envenoming mechanism produced by sting accidents caused by this wasp. For example, novel wasp venom neurotoxins have been identified, but no studies have assessed the presence of this type of toxin in social wasp venoms. In addition, 23 N-linked glycosylated venom proteins were identified in the P. paulista venom proteome, and some of these proteins might be relevant allergens that are immunoreactive to human IgE.

Late-Onset Post-radiation Lymphedema Provoked by Bee Venom Therapy: A Case Report

Lymphedema is a common complication associated with cancer itself or with cancer treatment. Lymphedema infrequently occurs after drug therapy. Bee venom is one of the materials used in acupuncture, and it has been used in the treatment of a variety of inflammatory diseases including arthritis. We report a 74-year-old male patient with late-onset post-radiation lymphedema provoked by bee venom therapy. He was free of lymphedema for 5 years after the complete remission of prostate cancer which had been treated with transurethral resection and radiation therapy. The patient developed left leg swelling after undergoing bee venom therapy for left hip pain. Computed tomography and lymphoscintigraphy showed lymphedema without tumor recurrence or infection. The lymphatic system was suspected to be injured by bee venom therapy and lymphedema was provoked. Bee venom therapy should be used cautiously in patients prone to lymphedema.