A Promising Polymer Blend Electrolytes Based on Chitosan: Methyl Cellulose for EDLC Application with High Specific Capacitance and Energy Density

Electrochemical properties of a novel EDLC derived from plasticized biopolymer based electrolytes with valuable energy density close to NiMH batteries

This study introduces a novel system of solid electrolytes for electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs) utilizing biopolymer electrolytes with high energy density comparable to NiMH batteries. To prepare the electrolytes, a proton-conducting plasticized chitosan: poly(2-oxazoline) (POZ) with good film-forming properties was fabricated using a solution casting technique, and ammonium trifluoromethanesulfonate (NH4CF3SO3) salt was employed as a proton provider. Various glycerol concentrations were incorporated into the chitosan:POZ: NH4CF3SO3 system to enhance the ionic conductivity and fully transparent films were obtained. The impedance technique was utilized to determine the conductivity and measure the diffusion coefficient, mobility, and number density of ions. The electrochemical measurements, including linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV), validated the high performance of the system. The EDLC was examined using galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) equipment, and the results revealed an energy density of 43 Wh/kg, specific capacitance of 300 F/g, and power density of 1800 W/kg over 500 cycles. These findings suggest that it is plausible to develop EDLCs that resemble batteries, making them a more desirable energy storage option for the industry.

Investigating the Correlation between Electrolyte Concentration and Electrochemical Properties of Ionogels

Ionogels are hybrid materials comprising an ionic liquid confined within a polymer matrix. They have garnered significant interest due to their unique properties, such as high ionic conductivity, mechanical stability, and wide electrochemical stability. These properties make ionogels suitable for various applications, including energy storage devices, sensors, and solar cells. However, optimizing the electrochemical performance of ionogels remains a challenge, as the relationship between specific capacitance, ionic conductivity, and electrolyte solution concentration is yet to be fully understood. In this study, we investigate the impact of electrolyte solution concentration on the electrochemical properties of ionogels to identify the correlation for enhanced performance. Our findings demonstrate a clear relationship between the specific capacitance and ionic conductivity of ionogels, which depends on the availability of mobile ions. The reduced number of ions at low electrolyte solution concentrations leads to decreased ionic conductivity and specific capacitance due to the scarcity of a double layer, constraining charge storage capacity. However, at a 31 vol% electrolyte solution concentration, an ample quantity of ions becomes accessible, resulting in increased ionic conductivity and specific capacitance, reaching maximum values of 58 ± 1.48 μS/cm and 45.74 F/g, respectively. Furthermore, the synthesized ionogel demonstrates a wide electrochemical stability of 3.5 V, enabling diverse practical applications. This study provides valuable insights into determining the optimal electrolyte solution concentration for enhancing ionogel electrochemical performance for energy applications. It highlights the impact of ion pairs and aggregates on ion mobility within ionogels, subsequently affecting their resultant electrochemical properties.

A Self-Healing Gel Polymer Electrolyte, Based on a Macromolecule Cross-Linked Chitosan for Flexible Supercapacitors

Gel polymer electrolytes with a satisfied ionic conductivity have attracted interest in flexible energy storage technologies, such as supercapacitors and rechargeable batteries. However, the poor mechanical strength inhibits its widespread application. One of the most significant ways to avoid the drawbacks of the gel polymer electrolytes without compromising their ion transportation capabilities is to create a self-healing structure with the cross-linking segment. Herein, a new kind of macromolecule chemical cross-linked network ionic gel polymer electrolyte (MCIGPE) with superior electrochemical characteristics, a high flexibility, and an excellent self-healing ability were designed, based on chitosan and dibenzaldehyde-terminated poly (ethylene glycol) (PEGDA) via dynamic imine bonds. The ionic conductivity of the MCIGPE-65 can achieve 2.75 × 10^-2 S cm^-1. A symmetric all-solid-state supercapacitor employing carbon cloth as current collectors, activated a carbon film as electrodes, and MCIGPE-65 as a gel polymer electrolyte exhibits a high specific capacitance of 51.1 F g^-1 at 1 A g^-1, and the energy density of 7.1 Wh kg^-1 at a power density of 500.2 W kg^-1. This research proves the enormous potential of incorporating, environmentally and economically, chitosan into gel polymer electrolytes for supercapacitors.

The EDLC Energy Storage Device Based on a Natural Gelatin (NG) Biopolymer: Tuning the Capacitance through Plasticizer Variation

A solution casting method has been utilisedto fabricate plasticisednatural gelatin (NG)-based polymer electrolyte films. The NG electrolyte with 50 wt.% glycerol and 13 wt.% sodium nitrate (NaNO₃) attained the highest ionic conductivity of 1.67 × 10^-4 S cm^-1. Numerous techniques were used to characterisethe NG films to assess their electrochemical performance. The data obtained from impedance spectroscopy for the plasticisedsystem, such as bulk resistance (Rb), arerelatively low. Thiscomprehensive study has been focused on dielectric characteristics and electric modulus parameters. The plasticisedsystem has shown eligibility for practice in energy storage devices with electrochemical strength up to 2.85 V. The TNM data based on ion transference number (tion) and electron transference number (te) determine the identity of the main charge carrier, ion. The redox peaks in the cyclic voltammograms have not been observed as evidence of charge accumulation other than the Faradaic process at the electrode-electrolyte interface. The GCD plot reveals a triangle shape and records arelatively low drop voltage. The high average efficiency of 90% with low ESR has been achieved over 500 cycles, indicating compatibility between electrolyte and electrode. The average power density and energy density of the plasticisedare 700 W/kg and 8 Wh/kg, respectively.

Effect of ZnO Nanofiller on Structural and Electrochemical Performance Improvement of Solid Polymer Electrolytes Based on Polyvinyl Alcohol–Cellulose Acetate–Potassium Carbonate Composites

In this study, a solution casting method was used to prepare solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs) based on a polymer blend comprising polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), cellulose acetate (CA), and potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) as a conducting salt, and zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO-NPs) as a nanofiller. The prepared electrolytes were physicochemically and electrochemically characterized, and their semi-crystalline nature was established using XRD and FESEM. The addition of ZnO to the polymer–salt combination resulted in a substantial increase in ionic conductivity, which was investigated using impedance analysis. The size of the semicircles in the Cole–Cole plots shrank as the amount of nanofiller increased, showing a decrease in bulk resistance that might be ascribed to an increase in ions due to the strong action of the ZnO-NPs. The sample with 10 wt % ZnO-NPs was found to produce the highest ionic conductivity, potential window, and lowest activation energy (E_a) of 3.70 × 10^–3 Scm^–1, 3.24 V, and 6.08 × 10^–4 eV, respectively. The temperature–frequency dependence of conductivity was found to approximately follow the Arrhenius model, which established that the electrolytes in this study are thermally activated. Hence, it can be concluded that, based on the improved conductivity observed, SPEs based on a PVA-CA-K₂CO₃/ZnO-NPs composite could be applicable in all-solid-state energy storage devices.

Study of MC:DN-Based Biopolymer Blend Electrolytes with Inserted Zn-Metal Complex for Energy Storage Devices with Improved Electrochemical Performance

Stable and ionic conducting electrolytes are needed to make supercapacitors more feasible, because liquid electrolytes have leakage problems and easily undergo solvent evaporation. Polymer-based electrolytes meet the criteria, yet they lack good efficiency due to limited segmental motion. Since metal complexes have crosslinking centers that can be coordinated with the polymer segments, they are regarded as an adequate method to improve the performance of the polymer-based electrolytes. To prepare plasticized proton conducting polymer composite (PPC), a simple and successful process was used. Using a solution casting process, methylcellulose and dextran were blended and impregnated with ammonium thiocyanate and zinc metal complex. A range of electrochemical techniques were used to analyze the PPC, including transference number measurement (TNM), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The ionic conductivity of the prepared system was found to be 3.59 × 10^-3 S/cm using the EIS method. The use of glycerol plasticizer improves the transport characteristics, according to the findings. The carrier species is found to have ionic mobility of 5.77 × 10^-5 cm² V^-1 s^-1 and diffusion coefficient of 1.48 × 10^-6 cm² s^-1 for the carrier density 3.4 × 10²⁰ cm^-3. The TNM revealed that anions and cations were the predominant carriers in electrolyte systems, with an ionic transference value of 0.972. The LSV approach demonstrated that, up to 2.05 V, the film was stable, which is sufficient for energy device applications. The prepared PPC was used to create an electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) device. The CV plot exhibited the absence of Faradaic peaks in the CV plot, making it practically have a rectangular form. Using the GCD experiment, the EDLC exhibited low equivalence series resistance of only 65 Ω at the first cycle. The average energy density, power density, and specific capacitance values were determined to be 15 Wh/kg, 350 W/kg, and 128 F/g, respectively.

High-Performance Poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene)-Based Composite Electrolytes with Excellent Interfacial Compatibility for Room-Temperature All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries

Composite solid-state electrolytes (CSEs) have been developed rapidly in recent years owing to their high electrochemical stability, low cost, and easy processing characteristics. Most CSEs, however, require high temperatures or flammable liquid solvents to exhibit their acceptable electrochemical performance. Room-temperature all-solid-state batteries without liquid electrolytes are still unsatisfactory and under development. Herein, we have prepared a composite solid electrolyte with excellent performance using a polymer electrolyte poly(vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene) and an inorganic electrolyte Li_6.4La₃Zr_1.4Ta_0.6O₁₂. With the assistance of lithium salts and plasticizers, the prepared CSE achieves a high ionic conductivity of 4.05 × 10^-4 S·cm^-1 at room temperature. The Li/CSE/Li symmetric cell can be stably cycled for more than 1000 h at 0.1 mA/cm² without short circuits. The all-solid-state lithium metal battery using a LiFePO₄ cathode displays a high discharge capacity of 148.1 mAh·g^-1 and a capacity retention of 90.21% after 100 cycles. Moreover, the high electrochemical window up to 4.7 V of the CSE makes it suitable for high-voltage service environments. The all-solid-state battery using a lithium nickel-manganate cathode shows a high discharge specific capacity of 197.85 mAh·g^-1 with good cycle performance. This work might guide the improvement of future CSEs and the exploration of flexible all-solid-state lithium metal batteries.

The Study of Ion Transport Parameters in MC-Based Electrolyte Membranes Using EIS and Their Applications for EDLC Devices

A solution cast technique was utilized to create a plasticized biopolymer-based electrolyte system. The system was prepared from methylcellulose (MC) polymer as the hosting material and potassium iodide (KI) salt as the ionic source. The electrolyte produced with sufficient conductivity was evaluated in an electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC). Electrolyte systems’ electrical, structural, and electrochemical properties have been examined using various electrochemical and FTIR spectroscopic techniques. From the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), a maximum ionic conductivity of 5.14 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ for the system with 50% plasticizer was recorded. From the EEC modeling, the ion transport parameters were evaluated. The extent of interaction between the components of the prepared electrolyte was investigated using Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). For the electrolyte system (MC-KI-glycerol), the t_ion and electrochemical windows were 0.964 and 2.2 V, respectively. Another electrochemical property of electrolytes is transference number measurement (TNM), in which the ion predominantly responsibility was examined in an attempt to track the transport mechanism. The non-Faradaic nature of charge storing was proved from the absence of a redox peak in the cyclic voltammetry profile (CV). Several decisive parameters have been specified, such as specific capacitance (C_s), coulombic efficiency (η), energy density (E_d), and power density (P_d) at the first cycle, which were 68 F g⁻¹, 67%, 7.88 Wh kg⁻¹, and 1360 Wh kg⁻¹, respectively. Ultimately, during the 400th cycle, the series resistance ESR varied from 70 to 310 ohms.

An understanding of a 3D hierarchically porous carbon modified electrode based on finite element modeling

A new strategy for the electrochemical evaluation of a 3D hierarchically porous carbon modified electrode is proposed via finite element modeling.

Transformation of Oil Palm Waste-Derived Cellulose into Solid Polymer Electrolytes: Investigating the Crucial Role of Plasticizers

This study explores the possibility of transforming lignocellulose-rich agricultural waste materials into value-added products. Cellulose was extracted from an empty fruit bunch of oil palm and further modified into carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), a water-soluble cellulose derivative. The CMC was then employed as the polymeric content in fabrication of solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) films incorporated with lithium iodide. To enhance the ionic conductivity of the solid polymer electrolytes, the compositions were optimized with different amounts of glycerol as a plasticizing agent. The chemical and physical effects of plasticizer content on the film composition were studied by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. FTIR and XRD analysis confirmed the interaction plasticizer with the polymer matrix and the amorphous nature of fabricated SPEs. The highest ionic conductivity of 6.26 × 10^-2 S/cm was obtained with the addition of 25 wt % of glycerol. By fabricating solid polymer electrolytes from oil palm waste-derived cellulose, the sustainability of the materials can be retained while reducing the dependence on fossil fuel-derived materials in electrochemical devices.

Characteristics of Plasticized Lithium Ion Conducting Green Polymer Blend Electrolytes Based on CS: Dextran with High Energy Density and Specific Capacitance

The solution cast process is used to set up chitosan: dextran-based plasticized solid polymer electrolyte with high specific capacitance (228.62 F/g) at the 1st cycle. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) pattern revealed the interaction between polymers and electrolyte components. At ambient temperature, the highest conductive plasticized system (CDLG-3) achieves a maximum conductivity of 4.16 × 10^-4 S cm^-1. Using both FTIR and electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) methods, the mobility, number density, and diffusion coefficient of ions are measured, and they are found to rise as the amount of glycerol increases. Ions are the primary charge carriers, according to transference number measurement (TNM). According to linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), the CDLG-3 system's electrochemical stability window is 2.2 V. In the preparation of electrical double layer capacitor devices, the CDLG-3 system was used. There are no Faradaic peaks on the cyclic voltammetry (CV) curve, which is virtually rectangular. Beyond the 20th cycle, the power density, energy density, and specific capacitance values from the galvanostatic charge-discharge are practically constant at 480 W/Kg, 8 Wh/Kg, and 60 F g^-1, for 180 cycles.

A Study of Methylcellulose Based Polymer Electrolyte Impregnated with Potassium Ion Conducting Carrier: Impedance, EEC Modeling, FTIR, Dielectric, and Device Characteristics

In this research, a biopolymer-based electrolyte system involving methylcellulose (MC) as a host polymeric material and potassium iodide (KI) salt as the ionic source was prepared by solution cast technique. The electrolyte with the highest conductivity was used for device application of electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) with high specific capacitance. The electrical, structural, and electrochemical characteristics of the electrolyte systems were investigated using various techniques. According to electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), the bulk resistance (R_b) decreased from 3.3 × 10⁵ to 8 × 10² Ω with the increase of salt concentration from 10 wt % to 40 wt % and the ionic conductivity was found to be 1.93 ×10^-5 S/cm. The dielectric analysis further verified the conductivity trends. Low-frequency regions showed high dielectric constant, ε' and loss, ε″ values. The polymer-salt complexation between (MC) and (KI) was shown through a Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) studies. The analysis of transference number measurement (TNM) supported ions were predominantly responsible for the transport process in the MC-KI electrolyte. The highest conducting sample was observed to be electrochemically constant as the potential was swept linearly up to 1.8 V using linear sweep voltammetry (LSV). The cyclic voltammetry (CV) profile reveals the absence of a redox peak, indicating the presence of a charge double-layer between the surface of activated carbon electrodes and electrolytes. The maximum specific capacitance, C_s value was obtained as 118.4 F/g at the sweep rate of 10 mV/s.

Characteristics of a Plasticized PVA-Based Polymer Electrolyte Membrane and H+ Conductor for an Electrical Double-Layer Capacitor: Structural, Morphological, and Ion Transport Properties

Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-based solid polymer electrolytes doped with ammonium thiocyanate (NH4SCN) and glycerol were fabricated using a solution casting method. Lithium-based energy storage devices are not environmentally friendly materials, and they are toxic. Thus, proton-conducting materials were used in this work as they are harmless and are smaller than lithium. The interaction between PVA and the electrolyte elements was shown by FTIR analysis. The highest conductivity of 1.82 × 10-5 S cm-1 was obtained by the highest-conducting plasticized system (PSP_2) at room temperature. The mobility, diffusion coefficient, and number density of anions and cations were found to increase with increasing glycerol. FESEM was used to investigate the influence of glycerol on film morphology. TNM showed that the cations and anions were the main charge carriers. LSV showed that the electrochemical stability window of the PSP_2 system was 1.99 V. The PSP_2 system was applied in the preparation of an electrical double layer capacitor device. The shape of the cyclic voltammetry (CV) curve was nearly rectangular with no Faradaic peaks. From the galvanostatic charge-discharge analysis, the power density, energy density, and specific capacitance values were nearly constant beyond the first cycle at 318.73 W/Kg, 2.06 Wh/Kg, and 18.30 F g-1, respectively, for 450 cycles.

Structural, Electrical and Electrochemical Properties of Glycerolized Biopolymers Based on Chitosan (CS): Methylcellulose (MC) for Energy Storage Application

In this work, a pair of biopolymer materials has been used to prepare high ion-conducting electrolytes for energy storage application (ESA). The chitosan:methylcellulose (CS:MC) blend was selected as a host for the ammonium thiocyanate NH₄SCN dopant salt. Three different concentrations of glycerol was successfully incorporated as a plasticizer into the CS–MC–NH₄SCN electrolyte system. The structural, electrical, and ion transport properties were investigated. The highest conductivity of 2.29 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ is recorded for the electrolyte incorporated 42 wt.% of plasticizer. The complexation and interaction of polymer electrolyte components are studied using the FTIR spectra. The deconvolution (DVN) of FTIR peaks as a sensitive method was used to calculate ion transport parameters. The percentage of free ions is found to influence the transport parameters of number density (n), ionic mobility (µ), and diffusion coefficient (D). All electrolytes in this work obey the non-Debye behavior. The highest conductivity electrolyte exhibits the dominancy of ions, where the ionic transference number, t_ion value of (0.976) is near to infinity with a voltage of breakdown of 2.11 V. The fabricated electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) achieves the highest specific capacitance, C_s of 98.08 F/g at 10 mV/s by using the cyclic voltammetry (CV) technique.

A Polymer Blend Electrolyte Based on CS with Enhanced Ion Transport and Electrochemical Properties for Electrical Double Layer Capacitor Applications

The fabrication of energy storage EDLC in this work is achieved with the implementation of a conducting chitosan–methylcellulose–NH₄NO₃–glycerol polymer electrolyte system. The simple solution cast method has been used to prepare the electrolyte. The impedance of the samples was fitted with equivalent circuits to design the circuit diagram. The parameters associated with ion transport are well studied at various plasticizer concentrations. The FTIR investigation has been done on the films to detect the interaction that occurs among plasticizer and polymer electrolyte. To get more insights into ion transport parameters, the FTIR was deconvoluted. The transport properties achieved from both impedance and FTIR are discussed in detail. It was discovered that the transport parameter findings are in good agreement with both impedance and FTIR studies. A sample with high transport properties was characterized for ion dominancy and stability through the TNM and LSV investigations. The dominancy of ions in the electrolyte verified as the t_ion of the electrolyte is established to be 0.933 whereas it is potentially stable up to 1.87 V. The rechargeability of the EDLC is steady up to 500 cycles. The internal resistance, energy density, and power density of the EDLC at the 1st cycle are 53 ohms, 6.97 Wh/kg, and 1941 W/kg, respectively.

Potential applications of polycarbohydrates, lignin, proteins, polyacids, and other renewable materials for the formulation of green elastomers

Renewable resources including polycarbohydrates, lignin, proteins, and polyacids are the intrinsically valuable class of materials that are naturally available in great quantities. Their utilization as green additives and reinforcing bio-fillers, in substitution of environmentally perilous petroleum-based fillers, for developing high-performance green rubber blends and composites is presently a highly tempting option. Blending of these renewable materials with elastomers is not straight-forward and research needs to exploit the high functionality of carbohydrates and other natural materials as proper physicochemical interactions are essential. Correlating and understanding the structural properties of lignin, carbohydrates, polyacids, and other biopolymers, before their incorporation in elastomers, is a potential approach towards the development of green elastomers for value-added applications. Promising properties i.e., biodegradability, biocompatibility, morphological characteristics, high mechanical properties, thermal stability, sustainability, and various other characteristics along with recent advancements in the development of green elastomers are reviewed in this paper. Structures, viability, interactions, properties, and use of most common natural polycarbohydrates (chitosan and starch), lignin, and proteins (collagen and gelatin) for elastomer modification are extensively reviewed. Challenges in commercialization, applications, and future perspectives of green elastomers are also discussed. Sustainability analysis of green elastomers is accomplished to elaborate their cost-effectiveness and environmental friendliness.

Ghareeb H, Dannoun EMA, M. Abdullah R, Hamsan MH, Kadir MFZ. Plasticized Sodium-Ion Conducting PVA Based Polymer Electrolyte for Electrochemical Energy Storage-EEC Modeling, Transport Properties, and Charge-Discharge Characteristics

This report presents the preparation of plasticized sodium ion-conducting polymer electrolytes based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)via solution cast technique. The prepared plasticized polymer electrolytes were utilized in the device fabrication of electrical double-layer capacitors (EDLCs). On an assembly EDLC system, cyclic voltammetry (CV), electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), transfer number measurement (TNM) and charge-discharging responses were performed. The influence of plasticization on polymer electrolytes was investigated in terms of electrochemical properties applying EIS and TNM. The EIS was fitted with electrical equivalent circuit (EEC) models and ion transport parameters were estimated with the highest conductivity of 1.17 × 10-3 S cm-1 was recorded. The CV and charge-discharging responses were used to evaluate the capacitance and the equivalent series resistance (ESR), respectively. The ESR of the highest conductive sample was found to be 91.2 Ω at the first cycle, with the decomposition voltage of 2.12 V. The TNM measurement has shown the dominancy of ions with tion = 0.982 for the highest conducting sample. The absence of redox peaks was proved via CV, indicating the charge storing process that comprised ion accumulation at the interfacial region. The fabricated EDLC device is stable for up to 400 cycles. At the first cycle, a high specific capacitance of 169 F/g, an energy density of 19 Wh/kg, and a power density of 600 W/kg were obtained.

Optimization of the Electrochemical Performance of a Composite Polymer Electrolyte Based on PVA-K2CO3-SiO2 Composite

Composite polymer electrolyte (CPE) based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) polymer, potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃) salt, and silica (SiO₂) filler was investigated and optimized in this study for improved ionic conductivity and potential window for use in electrochemical devices. Various quantities of SiO₂ in wt.% were incorporated into PVA-K₂CO₃ complex to prepare the CPEs. To study the effect of SiO₂ on PVA-K₂CO₃ composites, the developed electrolytes were characterized for their chemical structure (FTIR), morphology (FESEM), thermal stabilities (TGA), glass transition temperature (differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)), ionic conductivity using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and potential window using linear sweep voltammetry (LSV). Physicochemical characterization results based on thermal and structural analysis indicated that the addition of SiO₂ enhanced the amorphous region of the PVA-K₂CO₃ composites which enhanced the dissociation of the K₂CO₃ salt into K⁺ and CO₃^2- and thus resulting in an increase of the ionic conduction of the electrolyte. An optimum ionic conductivity of 3.25 × 10^-4 and 7.86 × 10^-3 mScm^-1 at ambient temperature and at 373.15 K, respectively, at a potential window of 3.35 V was observed at a composition of 15 wt.% SiO₂. From FESEM micrographs, the white granules and aggregate seen on the surface of the samples confirm that SiO₂ particles have been successfully dispersed into the PVA-K₂CO₃ matrix. The observed ionic conductivity increased linearly with increase in temperature confirming the electrolyte as temperature-dependent. Based on the observed performance, it can be concluded that the CPEs based on PVA-K₂CO₃-SiO₂ composites could serve as promising candidate for portable and flexible next generation energy storage devices.

Solid-State EDLC Device Based on Magnesium Ion-Conducting Biopolymer Composite Membrane Electrolytes: Impedance, Circuit Modeling, Dielectric Properties and Electrochemical Characteristics

The polymer electrolyte based on Dx:Cs:Mg(CH₃COO)₂:Ni with three different glycerol concentrations have been prepared. The impedance study has verified that the electrolyte with 42 wt.% of glycerol (A3) has the highest ionic conductivity of 7.71 × 10^-6 S cm^-1 at room temperature. The ionic conductivity is found to be influenced by the transport parameters. From the dielectric analysis, it was shown that the electrolytes in this system obeyed the non-Debye behavior. The A3 electrolyte exhibited a dominancy of ions (t_ion > t_e) with a breakdown voltage of 2.08 V. The fabricated electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) achieved the specific capacitance values of 24.46 F/g and 39.68 F/g via the cyclic voltammetry (CV) curve and the charge-discharge profile, respectively. The other significant parameters to evaluate the performance of EDLC have been determined, such as internal resistance (186.80 to 202.27 Ω) energy density (4.46 Wh/kg), power density (500.58 to 558.57 W/kg) and efficiency (92.88%).

Energy Storage Behavior of Lithium-Ion Conducting poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA): Chitosan(CS)-Based Polymer Blend Electrolyte Membranes: Preparation, Equivalent Circuit Modeling, Ion Transport Parameters, and Dielectric Properties

Plasticized lithium-ion-based-conducting polymer blend electrolytes based on poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA):chitosan (CS) polymer was prepared using a solution cast technique. The conductivity of the polymer electrolyte system was found to be 8.457 × 10^-4 S/cm, a critical factor for electrochemical device applications. It is indicated that the number density (n), diffusion coefficient (D), and mobility (μ) of ions are increased with the concentration of glycerol. High values of dielectric constant and dielectric loss were observed at low frequency region. A correlation was found between the dielectric constant and DC conductivity. The achieved transference number of ions (t_ion) and electrons (t_e) for the highest conducting plasticized sample were determined to be 0.989 and 0.011, respectively. The electrochemical stability for the highest conducting sample was 1.94 V, indicated by linear sweep voltammetry (LSV). The cyclic voltammetry (CV) response displayed no redox reaction peaks through its entire potential range. Through the constructing electric double-layer capacitor, the energy storage capacity of the highest conducting sample was investigated. All decisive parameters of the EDLC were determined. At the first cycle, the specific capacitance, internal resistance, energy density, and power density were found to be 130 F/g, 80 Ω, 14.5 Wh/kg, and 1100 W/kg, respectively.

Saeed S, Brza MA, Abdulwahid RT, Hamsan MH, M. Abdullah R, Kadir MFZ, Muzakir SK. Investigation of Ion Transport Parameters and Electrochemical Performance of Plasticized Biocompatible Chitosan-Based Proton Conducting Polymer Composite Electrolytes

In this study, biopolymer composite electrolytes based on chitosan:ammonium iodide:Zn(II)-complex plasticized with glycerol were successfully prepared using the solution casting technique. Various electrical and electrochemical parameters of the biopolymer composite electrolytes' films were evaluated prior to device application. The highest conducting plasticized membrane was found to have a conductivity of 1.17 × 10-4 S/cm. It is shown that the number density, mobility, and diffusion coefficient of cations and anions fractions are increased with the glycerol amount. Field emission scanning electron microscope and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy techniques are used to study the morphology and structure of the films. The non-Debye type of relaxation process was confirmed from the peak appearance of the dielectric relaxation study. The obtained transference number of ions (cations and anions) and electrons for the highest conducting sample were identified to be 0.98 and 0.02, respectively. Linear sweep voltammetry shows that the electrochemical stability of the highest conducting plasticized system is 1.37 V. The cyclic voltammetry response displayed no redox reaction peaks over its entire potential range. It was discovered that the addition of Zn(II)-complex and glycerol plasticizer improved the electric double-layer capacitor device performances. Numerous crucial parameters of the electric double-layer capacitor device were obtained from the charge-discharge profile. The prepared electric double-layer capacitor device showed that the initial values of specific capacitance, equivalence series resistance, energy density, and power density are 36 F/g, 177 Ω, 4.1 Wh/kg, and 480 W/kg, respectively.

Characteristics of Glycerolized Chitosan: NH4NO3-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Energy Storage Devices with Extremely High Specific Capacitance and Energy Density Over 1000 Cycles

In this work, plasticized polymer electrolyte films consisting of chitosan, ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃) and glycerol for utilization in energy storage devices was presented. Various microscopic, spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques were used to characterize the concerned electrolyte and the electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) assembly. The nature of complexation between the polymer electrolyte components was examined via X-ray diffraction analysis. In the morphological study, field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) was used to investigate the impact of glycerol as a plasticizer on the morphology of films. The polymer electrolyte (conducting membrane) was found to have a conductivity of 3.21 × 10^-3 S/cm. It is indicated that the number density (n), mobility (μ) and diffusion coefficient (D) of ions are increased with the glycerol amount. The mechanism of charge storing was clarified, which implies a non-Faradaic process. The voltage window of the polymer electrolyte is 2.32 V. It was proved that the ion is responsible for charge-carrying via measuring the transference number (TNM). It was also determined that the internal resistance of the EDLC assembly lay between 39 and 50 Ω. The parameters associated with the EDLC assembly are of great importance and the specific capacitance (C_spe) was determined to be almost constant over 1 to 1000 cycles with an average of 124 F/g. Other decisive parameters were found: energy density (18 Wh/kg) and power density (2700 W/kg).

The Study of Structural, Impedance and Energy Storage Behavior of Plasticized PVA:MC Based Proton Conducting Polymer Blend Electrolytes

In this study, structural characterization, electrical properties and energy storage performance of plasticized polymer electrolytes based on polyvinyl alcohol/methylcellulose/ammonium thiocyanate (PVA/MC-NH₄SCN) were carried out. An X-ray diffraction (XRD) study displayed that the plasticized electrolyte system with the uppermost value of direct current (DC) ionic conductivity was the most amorphous system. The electrolyte in the present work realized an ionic conductivity of 2.903 × 10⁻³ Scm⁻¹ at room temperature. The main charge carrier in the electrolyte was found to be the ions with the ionic transference number (t_ion) of 0.912, compared to only 0.088 for the electronic transference number (t_elec). The electrochemical stability potential window of the electrolyte is 2.1 V. The specific capacitance was found to reduce from 102.88 F/g to 28.58 F/g as the scan rate increased in cyclic voltammetry (CV) analysis. The fabricated electrochemical double layer capacitor (EDLC) was stable up to 200 cycles with high efficiency. The specific capacitance obtained for the EDLC by using charge–discharge analysis was 132.7 F/g at the first cycle, which is slightly higher compared to the CV plot. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) increased from 58 to 171 Ω throughout the cycles, which indicates a good electrolyte/electrode contact. Ions in the electrolyte were considered to have almost the same amount of energy during the conduction process as the energy density is approximately at 14.0 Wh/kg throughout the 200 cycles. The power density is stabilized at the range of 1444.3 to 467.6 W/kg as the EDLC completed the cycles.

The Study of Plasticized Solid Polymer Blend Electrolytes Based on Natural Polymers and Their Application for Energy Storage EDLC Devices

In this work, plasticized magnesium ion-conducting polymer blend electrolytes based on chitosan:methylcellulose (CS:MC) were prepared using a solution cast technique. Magnesium acetate [Mg(CH₃COO)₂] was used as a source of the ions. Nickel metal-complex [Ni(II)-complex)] was employed to expand the amorphous phase. For the ions dissociation enhancement, glycerol plasticizer was also engaged. Incorporating 42 wt% of the glycerol into the electrolyte system has been shown to improve the conductivity to 1.02 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis showed that the electrolyte with the highest conductivity has a minimum crystallinity degree. The ionic transference number was estimated to be more than the electronic transference number. It is concluded that in CS:MC:Mg(CH₃COO)₂:Ni(II)-complex:glycerol, ions are the primary charge carriers. Results from linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) showed electrochemical stability to be 2.48 V. An electric double-layer capacitor (EDLC) based on activated carbon electrode and a prepared solid polymer electrolyte was constructed. The EDLC cell was then analyzed by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and galvanostatic charge–discharge methods. The CV test disclosed rectangular shapes with slight distortion, and there was no appearance of any redox currents on both anodic and cathodic parts, signifying a typical behavior of EDLC. The EDLC cell indicated a good cyclability of about (95%) for throughout of 200 cycles with a specific capacitance of 47.4 F/g.

Compatible Solid Polymer Electrolyte Based on Methyl Cellulose for Energy Storage Application: Structural, Electrical, and Electrochemical Properties

Compatible green polymer electrolytes based on methyl cellulose (MC) were prepared for energy storage electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) application. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was conducted for structural investigation. The reduction in the intensity of crystalline peaks of MC upon the addition of sodium iodide (NaI) salt discloses the growth of the amorphous area in solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs). Impedance plots show that the uppermost conducting electrolyte had a smaller bulk resistance. The highest attained direct current DC conductivity was 3.01 × 10^-3 S/cm for the sample integrated with 50 wt.% of NaI. The dielectric analysis suggests that samples in this study showed non-Debye behavior. The electron transference number was found to be lower than the ion transference number, thus it can be concluded that ions are the primary charge carriers in the MC-NaI system. The addition of a relatively high concentration of salt into the MC matrix changed the ion transfer number from 0.75 to 0.93. From linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), the green polymer electrolyte in this work was actually stable up to 1.7 V. The consequence of the cyclic voltammetry (CV) plot suggests that the nature of charge storage at the electrode-electrolyte interfaces is a non-Faradaic process and specific capacitance is subjective by scan rates. The relatively high capacitance of 94.7 F/g at a sweep rate of 10 mV/s was achieved for EDLC assembly containing a MC-NaI system.

The Study of the Degree of Crystallinity, Electrical Equivalent Circuit, and Dielectric Properties of Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)-Based Biopolymer Electrolytes

This report presents a facile and efficient methodology for the fabrication of plasticized polyvinyl alcohol (PVA):chitosan (CS) polymer electrolytes using a solution cast technique. Regarding characterizations of electrical properties and structural behavior, the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) are used, respectively. Crystalline peaks appear in the XRD pattern of the PVA:CS:NH₄I while no peaks can be seen in the XRD pattern of plasticized systems. The degree of crystallinity is calculated for all the samples from the deconvoluted area of crystalline and amorphous phases. Considering the EIS measurements, the most conductive plasticized system shows a relatively high conductivity of (1.37 × 10⁻⁴) S/cm, which is eligible for applications in energy storage devices. The analysis of the EIS spectra reveals a decrease in bulk resistance which indicates an increase in free ion carriers. The electrical equivalent circuit (EEC) model is used in the analysis of EIS plots. Dielectric properties are modified with the addition of glycerol as a plasticizer. It is proved that the addition of glycerol as a plasticizer lowers ion association. It also shows, at the low-frequency region, a large value of a dielectric constant which is correlated with electrode polarization (EP). The distribution of relaxation times is associated with conducting ions.

Characteristics of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell Assembled from Modified Chitosan-Based Gel Polymer Electrolytes Incorporated with Potassium Iodide

In the present work, phthaloyl chitosan (PhCh)-based gel polymer electrolytes (GPEs) were prepared using dimethylformamide (DMF) as a solvent, ethyl carbonate (EC) as a co-solvent, and a set of five quaternaries of potassium iodide (KI) as a doping salt, which is a mixed composition of iodine (I₂). The prepared GPEs were applied to dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) to observe the effectiveness of the electrolyte, using mesoporous TiO₂, which was sensitized with N3 dye as the sensitizer. The incorporation of the potassium iodide-based redox couple in a polymer electrolyte is fabricated for dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs). The number of compositions was based on the chemical equation, which is 1:1 for KI:I₂. The electrical performance of prepared GPE systems have been assessed using electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), and dielectric permittivity. The improvement in the ionic conductivity of PhCh-based GPE was observed with the rise of salt concentration, and the maximum ionic conductivity (4.94 × 10⁻² S cm⁻¹) was achieved for the 0.0012 mol of KI:I₂. The study of dielectric permittivity displays that ions with a high dielectric constant are associated with a high concentration of added ions. Furthermore, the gel polymer electrolyte samples were applied to DSSCs to detect the conversion effectiveness of the electrolytes. For electrolytes containing various content of KI:I₂ the highest conversion efficiency (η%) of DSSC obtained was 3.57% with a short circuit current density (Jsc) of 20.33 mA cm⁻², open-circuit voltage (Voc) of 0.37 V, fill factor (FF) of 0.47, as well as a conductivity of 2.08 × 10⁻² S cm⁻¹.

Hadi J, Dannoun EMA, Abdulwahid RT, R. Saeed S, Shahab Marf A, Karim WO, Kadir MF. The Study of Plasticized Amorphous Biopolymer Blend Electrolytes Based on Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA): Chitosan with High Ion Conductivity for Energy Storage Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors (EDLC) Device Application

In this study, plasticized films of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA): chitosan (CS) based electrolyte impregnated with ammonium thiocyanate (NH4SCN) were successfully prepared using a solution-casting technique. The structural features of the electrolyte films were investigated through the X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern. The enrichment of the amorphous phase with increasing glycerol concentration was confirmed by observing broad humps. The electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) portrays the improvement of ionic conductivity from 10-5 S/cm to 10-3 S/cm upon the addition of plasticizer. The electrolytes incorporated with 28 wt.% and 42 wt.% of glycerol were observed to be mainly ionic conductor as the ionic transference number measurement (TNM) was found to be 0.97 and 0.989, respectively. The linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) investigation indicates that the maximum conducting sample is stable up to 2 V. An electrolyte with the highest conductivity was used to make an energy storage electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) device. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) plot depicts no distinguishable peaks in the polarization curve, which means no redox reaction has occurred at the electrode/electrolyte interface. The fabricated EDLC displays the initial specific capacitance, equivalent series resistance, energy density, and power density of 35.5 F/g, 65 Ω, 4.9 Wh/kg, and 399 W/kg, respectively.

Drawbacks of Low Lattice Energy Ammonium Salts for Ion-Conducting Polymer Electrolyte Preparation: Structural, Morphological and Electrical Characteristics of CS:PEO:NH4BF4-Based Polymer Blend Electrolytes

In the present work it was shown that low lattice energy ammonium salts are not favorable for polymer electrolyte preparation for electrochemical device applications. Polymer blend electrolytes based on chitosan:poly(ethylene oxide) (CS:PEO) incorporated with various amounts of low lattice energy NH4BF4ammonium salt have been prepared using the solution cast technique. Both structural and morphological studies were carried out to understand the phenomenon of ion association. Sharp peaks appeared in X-ray diffraction (XRD) spectra of the samples with high salt concentration. The degree of crystallinity increased from 8.52 to 65.84 as the salt concentration increased up to 40 wt.%. These are correlated to the leakage of the associated anions and cations of the salt to the surface of the polymer. The structural behaviors were further confirmed by morphological study. The morphological results revealed the large-sized protruded salts at high salt concentration. Based on lattice energy of salts, the phenomena of salt leakage were interpreted. Ammonium salts with lattice energy lower than 600 kJ/mol are not preferred for polymer electrolyte preparation due to the significant tendency of ion association among cations and anions. Electrical impedance spectroscopy was used to estimate the conductivity of the samples. It was found that the bulk resistance increased from 1.1 × 104 ohm to 0.7 × 105 ohm when the salt concentration raised from 20 wt.% to 40 wt.%, respectively; due to the association of cations and anions. The low value of direct current (DC) conductivity (7.93 × 10-7 S/cm) addressed the non-suitability of the electrolytes for electrochemical device applications. The calculated values of the capacitance over the interfaces of electrodes-electrolytes (C2) were found to drop from 1.32 × 10-6 F to 3.13 × 10-7 F with increasing salt concentration. The large values of dielectric constant at low frequencies are correlated to the electrode polarization phenomena while their decrements with rising frequency are attributed to the lag of ion polarization in respect of the fast orientation of the applied alternating current (AC) field. The imaginary part of the electric modulus shows obvious peaks known as conduction relaxation peaks.

Electrical, Dielectric Property and Electrochemical Performances of Plasticized Silver Ion-Conducting Chitosan-Based Polymer Nanocomposites

In the present work, chitosan (CS) as a natural biopolymer was used to prepare nanocomposite polymer electrolytes (NCPEs) in order to reduce plastic waste pollution. The plasticized CS-based NCSPE has been prepared via the solution casting technique. The electrical properties of the films were investigated using AC conductivity, dielectric properties, electric modulus, and electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The obtained results from the dielectric properties and electric modulus study confirm the non-Debye behavior of ion dynamics. The effect of glycerol plasticizer on ionic conductivity of the CS:AgNO₃:Al₂O₃ system was investigated via AC conductivity and impedance studies. The conductivity of the samples was explained based on electrical equivalent circuits and Bode plots. The electrochemical properties such as transfer number measurement (TNM), linear sweep voltammetry (LSV), and cyclic voltammetry (CV) were carried out to inspect the sample suitability for electrochemical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) application. The highest conductivity was 3.7 × 10⁻⁴ S cm⁻¹ with the electrochemical stability window up to 2.1 V at room temperature. Through the TNM study, the ionic conductivity of plasticized CS-based NCSPE was confirmed, and ion transport (t_ion) of the highest conducting sample was found to be 0.985. The activated carbon electrode with the highest conducting sample was employed in the EDLC device fabrication. Accordingly, it can be said that the highest conducting sample had capable performance to be applied in electrochemical device application.

Nofal M, San S, Abdulwahid RT, Raza Saeed S, Brza MA, Kadir MFZ, Mohammed SJ, Al-Zangana S. From Cellulose, Shrimp and Crab Shells to Energy Storage EDLC Cells: The Study of Structural and Electrochemical Properties of Proton Conducting Chitosan-Based Biopolymer Blend Electrolytes

In this study, solid polymer blend electrolytes (SPBEs) based on chitosan (CS) and methylcellulose (MC) incorporated with different concentrations of ammonium fluoride (NH₄F) salt were synthesized using a solution cast technique. Both Fourier transformation infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) results confirmed a strong interaction and dispersion of the amorphous region within the CS:MC system in the presence of NH₄F. To gain better insights into the electrical properties of the samples, the results of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were analyzed by electrical equivalent circuit (EEC) modeling. The highest conductivity of 2.96 × 10⁻³ S cm⁻¹ was recorded for the sample incorporated with 40 wt.% of NH₄F. Through transference number measurement (TNM) analysis, the fraction of ions was specified. The electrochemical stability of the electrolyte sample was found to be up to 2.3 V via the linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) study. The value of specific capacitance was determined to be around 58.3 F/g. The stability test showed that the electrical double layer capacitor (EDLC) system can be recharged and discharged for up to 100 cycles with an average specific capacitance of 64.1 F/g. The synthesized EDLC cell was found to exhibit high efficiency (90%). In the 1st cycle, the values of internal resistance, energy density and power density of the EDLC cell were determined to be 65 Ω, 9.3 Wh/kg and 1282 W/kg, respectively.

Aziz S, M. Nofal M, Hamsan MH, Brza MA, Yusof YM, Abdilwahid RT, Muzakir SK, Kadir MFZ. Glycerolized Li+ Ion Conducting Chitosan-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Energy Storage EDLC Device Applications with Relatively High Energy Density

In this study, the solution casting method was employed to prepare plasticized polymer electrolytes of chitosan (CS):LiCO₂CH₃:Glycerol with electrochemical stability (1.8 V). The electrolyte studied in this current work could be established as new materials in the fabrication of EDLC with high specific capacitance and energy density. The system with high dielectric constant was also associated with high DC conductivity (5.19 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm). The increase of the amorphous phase upon the addition of glycerol was observed from XRD results. The main charge carrier in the polymer electrolyte was ion as t_el (0.044) < t_ion (0.956). Cyclic voltammetry presented an almost rectangular plot with the absence of a Faradaic peak. Specific capacitance was found to be dependent on the scan rate used. The efficiency of the EDLC was observed to remain constant at 98.8% to 99.5% up to 700 cycles, portraying an excellent cyclability. High values of specific capacitance, energy density, and power density were achieved, such as 132.8 F/g, 18.4 Wh/kg, and 2591 W/kg, respectively. The low equivalent series resistance (ESR) indicated that the EDLC possessed good electrolyte/electrode contact. It was discovered that the power density of the EDLC was affected by ESR.

Metal Complex as a Novel Approach to Enhance the Amorphous Phase and Improve the EDLC Performance of Plasticized Proton Conducting Chitosan-Based Polymer Electrolyte

This work indicates that glycerolized chitosan-NH₄F polymer electrolytes incorporated with zinc metal complexes are crucial for EDLC application. The ionic conductivity of the plasticized system was improved drastically from 9.52 × 10⁻⁴ S/cm to 1.71 × 10⁻³ S/cm with the addition of a zinc metal complex. The XRD results demonstrated that the amorphous phase was enhanced for the system containing the zinc metal complex. The transference number of ions (t_ion) and electrons (t_e) were measured for two of the highest conducting electrolyte systems. It confirmed that the ions were the dominant charge carriers in both systems as t_ion values for CSNHG4 and CSNHG5 electrolytes were 0.976 and 0.966, respectively. From the examination of LSV, zinc improved the electrolyte electrochemical stability to 2.25 V. The achieved specific capacitance from the CV plot reveals the role of the metal complex on storage properties. The charge–discharge profile was obtained for the system incorporated with the metal complex. The obtained specific capacitance ranged from 69.7 to 77.6 F/g. The energy and power densities became stable from 7.8 to 8.5 Wh/kg and 1041.7 to 248.2 W/kg, respectively, as the EDLC finalized the cycles.

Nofal M, Karim WO, Brevik I, Brza MA, Abdulwahid RT, Al-Zangana S, Kadir MFZ. Structural, Impedance and Electrochemical Characteristics of Electrical Double Layer Capacitor Devices Based on Chitosan: Dextran Biopolymer Blend Electrolytes

This report presents the preparation and characterizations of solid biopolymer blend electrolyte films of chitosan as cationic polysaccharide and anionic dextran (CS: Dextran) doped with ammonium iodide (NH4I) to be utilized as electrolyte and electrode separator in electrical double-layer capacitor (EDLC) devices. FTIR and XRD techniques were used to study the structural behavior of the films. From the FTIR band analysis, shifting and broadening of the bands were observed with increasing salt concentration. The XRD analysis indicates amorphousness of the blended electrolyte samples whereby the peaks underwent broadening. The analysis of the impedance spectra emphasized that incorporation of 40 wt.% of NH4I salt into polymer electrolyte exhibited a relatively high conductivity (5.16 × 10-3 S/cm). The transference number measurement (TNM) confirmed that ion (tion = 0.928) is the main charge carriers in the conduction process. The linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) revealed the extent of durability of the relatively high conducting film which was 1.8 V. The mechanism of charge storage within the fabricated EDLC has been explained to be fully capacitive behavior with no redox peaks appearance in the cyclic voltammogram (CV). From this findings, four important parameters of the EDLC; specific capacitance, equivalent series resistance, energy density and power density were calculated as 67.5 F/g, 160 ohm, 7.59 Wh/kg and 520.8 W/kg, respectively.

Electrochemical Characteristics of Glycerolized PEO-Based Polymer Electrolytes

In this article, poly(ethylene oxide)-based polymer electrolyte films doped with ammonium iodide (NH4I) and plasticized with glycerol were provided by a solution casting method. In the unplasticized system, the maximum ionic conductivity of 3.96 × 10-5 S cm-1 was achieved by the electrolyte comprised of 70 wt. % PEO:30 wt. % NH4I. The conductivity was further enhanced up to (1.77×10-4 S cm-1) for the plasticized system when 10 wt. % glycerol was added to the highest conducting unplasticized one at ambient temperature. The films were characterized by various techniques to evaluate their electrochemical performance. The results of impedance spectroscopy revealed that bulk resistance (Rb) considerably decreased for the highest plasticized polymer electrolyte. The dielectric properties and electric modulus parameters were studied in detail. The LSV analysis verified that the plasticized system can be used in energy storage devices with electrochemical stability up to 1.09 V and the TNM data elucidated that the ions were the main charge carrier. The values of the ion transference number (tion) and electron transfer number (tel) were calculated. The nonappearance of any redox peaks in the cyclic voltammograms indicated that the chemical reaction had not occurred at the electrode/electrolyte interface.

Structural, Morphological, Electrical and Electrochemical Properties of PVA: CS-Based Proton-Conducting Polymer Blend Electrolytes

Polymer blend electrolytes based on poly(vinyl alcohol):chitosan (PVA:CS) incorporated with various quantities of ammonium iodide were prepared and characterized using a range of electrochemical, structural and microscopic techniques. In the structural analysis, X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to confirm the buildup of the amorphous phase. To reveal the effect of dopant addition on structural changes, field-emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM) was used. The protrusions of salt aggregates with large quantity were seen at the surface of the formed films at 50 wt.% of the added salt. The nature of the relationship between conductivity and dielectric properties was shown using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). The EIS spectra were fitted with electrical equivalent circuits (EECs). It was observed that both dielectric constant and dielectric loss were high in the low-frequency region. For all samples, loss tangent and electric modulus plots were analyzed to become familiar with the relaxation behavior. Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) and transference number measurement (TNM) were recorded. A relatively high cut-off potential for the polymer electrolyte was obtained at 1.33 V and both values of the transference number for ion (t_ion) and electronic (t_elec) showed the ion dominant as charge carrier species. The TNM and LSV measurements indicate the suitability of the samples for energy storage application if their conductivity can be more enhanced.

Ion Transport Study in CS: POZ Based Polymer Membrane Electrolytes Using Trukhan Model

In this work, analysis of ion transport parameters of polymer blend electrolytes incorporated with magnesium trifluoromethanesulfonate (Mg(CF₃SO₃)₂) was carried out by employing the Trukhan model. A solution cast technique was used to obtain the polymer blend electrolytes composed of chitosan (CS) and poly (2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (POZ). From X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns, improvement in amorphous phase for the blend samples has been observed in comparison to the pure state of CS. From impedance plot, bulk resistance (R_b) was found to decrease with increasing temperature. Based on direct current (DC) conductivity (σ_dc) patterns, considerations on the ion transport models of Arrhenius and Vogel–Tammann–Fulcher (VTF) were given. Analysis of the dielectric properties was carried out at different temperatures and the obtained results were linked to the ion transport mechanism. It is demonstrated in the real part of electrical modulus that chitosan-salt systems are extremely capacitive. The asymmetric peak of the imaginary part (M_i) of electric modulus indicated that there is non-Debye type of relaxation for ions. From frequency dependence of dielectric loss (ε″) and the imaginary part (M_i) of electric modulus, suitable coupling among polymer segmental and ionic motions was identified. Two techniques were used to analyze the viscoelastic relaxation dynamic of ions. The Trukhan model was used to determine the diffusion coefficient (D) by using the frequency related to peak frequencies and loss tangent maximum heights (tanδ_max). The Einstein–Nernst equation was applied to determine the carrier number density (n) and mobility. The ion transport parameters, such as D, n and mobility (μ), at room temperature, were found to be 4 × 10⁻⁵ cm²/s, 3.4 × 10¹⁵ cm⁻³, and 1.2 × 10⁻⁴ cm²/Vs, respectively. Finally, it was shown that an increase in temperature can also cause these parameters to increase.

Employing of Trukhan Model to Estimate Ion Transport Parameters in PVA Based Solid Polymer Electrolyte

In the current paper, ion transport parameters in poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) based solid polymer electrolyte were examined using Trukhan model successfully. The desired amount of lithium trifluoromethanesulfonate (LiCF₃SO₃) was dissolved in PVA host polymer to synthesis of solid polymer electrolytes (SPEs). Ion transport parameters such as mobility (μ), diffusion coefficient (D), and charge carrier number density (n) are investigated in detail using impedance spectroscopy. The data results from impedance plots illustrated a decrement of bulk resistance with an increase in temperature. Using electrical equivalent circuits (EEC), electrical impedance plots (ZivsZr) are fitted at various temperatures. The results of impedance study demonstrated that the resistivity of the sample decreases with increasing temperature. The decrease of resistance or impedance with increasing temperature distinguished from Bode plots. The dielectric constant and dielectric loss values increased with an increase in temperature. The loss tangent peaks shifted to higher frequency region and the intensity increased with an increase in temperature. In this contribution, ion transport as a complicated subject in polymer physics is studied. The conductivity versus reciprocal of temperature was found to obey Arrhenius behavior type. The ion transport mechanism is discussed from the tanδ spectra. The ion transport parameters at ambient temperature are found to be 9 × 10⁻⁸ cm²/s, 0.8 × 10¹⁷ cm⁻³, and 3 × 10⁻⁶ cm²/Vs for D, n, andμ respectively. All these parameters have shown increasing as temperature increased. The electric modulus parameters are studied in an attempt to understand the relaxation dynamics and to clarify the relaxation process and ion dynamics relationship.

Development of Polymer Blend Electrolyte Membranes Based on Chitosan: Dextran with High Ion Transport Properties for EDLC Application

Solid polymer blend electrolyte membranes (SPBEM) composed of chitosan and dextran with the incorporation of various amounts of lithium perchlorate (LiClO₄) were synthesized. The complexation of the polymer blend electrolytes with the salt was examined using FTIR spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The morphology of the SPBEs was also investigated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM). The ion transport behavior of the membrane films was measured using impedance spectroscopy. The membrane with highest LiClO₄ content was found to exhibit the highest conductivity of 5.16 × 10⁻³ S/cm. Ionic (t_i) and electronic (t_e) transference numbers for the highest conducting electrolyte were found to be 0.98 and 0.02, respectively. Electrochemical stability was estimated from linear sweep voltammetry and found to be up to ~2.3V for the Li⁺ ion conducting electrolyte. The only existence of electrical double charging at the surface of electrodes was evidenced from the absence of peaks in cyclic voltammetry (CV) plot. The discharge slope was observed to be almost linear, confirming the capacitive behavior of the EDLC. The performance of synthesized EDLC was studied using CV and charge–discharge techniques. The highest specific capacitance was achieved to be 8.7 F·g⁻¹ at 20th cycle. The efficiency (η) was observed to be at 92.8% and remained constant at 92.0% up to 100 cycles. The EDLC was considered to have a reasonable electrode-electrolyte contact, in which η exceeds 90.0%. It was determined that equivalent series resistance (R_esr) is quite low and varies from 150 to 180 Ω over the 100 cycles. Energy density (E_d) was found to be 1.21 Wh·kg⁻¹ at the 1st cycle and then remained stable at 0.86 Wh·kg⁻¹ up to 100 cycles. The interesting observation is that the value of P_d increases back to 685 W·kg⁻¹ up to 80 cycles.